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European settlements in the Far East; Chi
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Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
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EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS IN
THE FAR EAST
European Settlements
IN THE
Far East
CHINA, JAPAN, COREA, INDO-CHINA,
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, MALAY STATES, SIAM,
NETHERLANDS INDIA, BORNEO,
THE PHILIPPINES, ETC.
WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY
LIMITED
Sit. SBunfitan'jfi Igoufie
Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.
1900
LONDON:
FBIKTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LISOTED,
STAUFOKD STREET AND CHABIKG CB068.
PREFATORY NOTE
The frequent occurrence in the Press, on both sides of
the Atlantic, of the phrases " Spheres of Influence "
and " The Open Door ; " the great prominence given to
the Far East, both politically and commercially, and
the important part it seems destined to play in
European politics in the near future, lead the com-
piler to believe that this brief account of the European
Settlements in the Far East will not be without
interest to the political student, the merchant, and
the public generally.
It is also hoped that it will be of value to the ever-
increasing army of travellers as a guide-book to many
places which, although they lie out of the ordinary
route, will well repay a visit.
D. W. S.
HoNO Kong,
April, 1900.
CONTENTS
PAGE
EASTERN SIBERIA 1
Vladivostook 3
NiCOLAJEWSK 5
JAPAN 7
Tokyo 21
Yokohama 25
Hakodate . . 28
Osaka 29
Kobe-Hyogo 30
Nagasaki . . 33
Formosa 35
Tamsui and Kelung 38
Tainan-pu, Takow, and Anpino 39
COREA ^41
Seocl 46
Chemulpo 48
WoNSAN (Gensan ok Yuenban) 49
FOSAN 51
MoKFO 52
Chinnampo 52
PmQYANG 53
EUNSAN . 53
Song Chin 54
CHINA 57
VUl CONTENTS
PAGE
Pekinq 71
Tientsin • 7*
Taku ... 78
Pei-tai-ho 79
Newohwang .... 82
Talienwan 83
Port Arthde 83
Chefoo 84
Wei-hai-wbi 86
KlAOOHAU 87
Shanghai 88
SOOOHOW . 126
Ohinkiang 128
Nanking 129
WuHU 131
Kbwkiang 133
Hankow 134
YooHow .... 136
Shasi 139
Ichang 140
Chdnokins ... HI
Hangohow .... 143
NiNGPO 145
WfiNOHOW 147
Bantu (Pdninq-pu) 148
FoooHow 149
Amot 152
SWATOW 154
Canton 15S
Whampoa 160
Chinese Kowloon New Customs 161
Lappa 16i
CONTENTS IX
PAGE
Samshdi 162
Wdchow-fc 162
KWANGCHAtrWAN 166
Pakhoi 167
HoiHow (vs Hainan) 168
LUNGCHOW . 170
MfiNGTSZ 171
HoKow 172
SZEMAO . . 173
HONGKONG 175
MACAO 213
INDO-CHINA 219
Tonkin 224
Hanoi 225
Haiphong 226
Annam . . . . 228
Hue 228
Pbovinces de l' Annam:
Toitkane 229
Quinhon 231
Cochin-China . 231
Saigon 234
Cholon 235
Cambodia 236
SIAM 239
Bangkok 243
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS .....' 247
Singapore 250
Malacca .... 259
Penanq 261
JOHOBE 265
Fedeeated Malay States 267
X CONTENTS
rAGB
PAHANa 267
The Negri Seubilan 269
Sblanoob 270
Ferae 273
NETHERLANDS INDIA 277
Batavia . 290
buitbnzoeo 292
soerabaia 293
Semabano 294
Fadang 294
Maoassee 295
The East Coast op Sumatea 295
THE PHILIFPINES 299
Manila 307
Iloilo 311
Cebc 313
BORNEO 315
Sarawak 318
Beitisb Noeth Borneo 319
LAsrAN 322
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
TO FACE PAGE
Shanghai Frontispiece
Tokyo 16
Tokyo. Uyeno Park 22
Yokohama 24
Yokohama .... 26
Hakodate 23
Osaka 30
Kobe. The Bund 32
Nagasaki Harbour 34
Peking 72
Tientsin ... . . 74
KlAOCHAU 88
Shanghai. The Bond 104
Hankow ... 134
Hangohow 144
FoocHow ... 150
Amoy. Kulangsu 152
SWATOW 154
Canton. Flower Boats 156
Marble Bock. West Biyeb 156
Hongkong (Central) 178
Hongkong. Kowloon Peninsula 192
Hongkong Harbour 192
Macao 216
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Hanoi
Haiphong
Singapore. The Esplanade
SiNGAPOBB. Johnson's Piee
Malacca ,.'...
JOHOBE
Pbnang
Labuan
Thaipeno
Batatia
Chief Street in Sbmabang
Manila
Iloilo
Cbbu
; PAGB
226
226
250
256
260
260
264
276
276
290
294
308
312
312
Map illustkating "European Settlements dj the Far
Bast"
EASTEKN SIBERIA
EASTEEN SIBEEIA
VLADIVOSTOCK
This port, on some charts still called Port May, lies in
latitude 43 deg. 7 min. N., and longitude 131 deg.
54 min. E., at the southern end of a long peninsuLi
reaching into Peter the Great Bay. Of the ports in
East Siberia it is by far the most important, both as a
military and commercial centre. It is a free port except
that duties have to be paid on the following articles : —
Alcoholic liquors, tobacco, matches, kerosine oil, var-
nishes, sugar, leaf tea, and sweetmeats. Vladivostock
is one of the most magnificent harbours in the East.
From its peculiar long and narrow shape, and the once
supposed hidden treasures in the slightly auriferous
soil of its surrounding hills, it has not inappropriately
been called the Golden Horn. The entrances to the
harbour are hidden by Dundas Island, which divides
the fairway into two narrow passages. This fine sheet
of water first runs for about half a mile in a northern
direction, and then suddenly bends to the east for a
distance of about one mile. On all sides it is sur-
rounded by hills, low on the southern and higher on
the northern shore, and which slope sharply down to
the water's edge. These hills, once verdant with foliage,
have been completely denuded of trees by reckless
B 2
4 EASTERN SIBERIA
felling. The harbour, capable of accommodating an
almost unlimited number of vessels of deep draught
and large < capacity, affords a safe anchorage. It is
usually icebound in January and February, but
steamers can almost always find their way in with the
assistance of an ice-breaker. There is a floating dock
capable of taking in vessels up to 3000 tons, and a fine
graving dock was opened on the 13th October, 1897.
The dimensions of this new dock are : — Length over
all, 625 feet ; length at bottom, 555 feet ; breadth, 120
feet ; breadth at entrance, 90 feet ; depth, 30 feet.
The port, the chief naval station of Kussia on the
Pacific, is commanded by an Admiral appointed from
home, and there is also a military Governor, residing at
Vladivostock, who is in command of the forces spread
over the South Ussuri district. The municipal affairs
of the town are managed by a Mayor and Town Council
elected by and from among the Eussian civil com-
munity. The town is built on the southern slope of
the hiUs running along the northern shore of the
harbour, and handsome brick residences have been
erected in recent years, replacing the older wooden
structures. The entire area, with the exception of
some unoccupied lots intervening here and there, is
covered by buildings ; and the town is well laid out
with wide but ill-kept roads. The sanitary arrange-
ments are bad, though the town is fairly healthy.
Most conspicuous among the buildings are the Govern-
ment offices, the barracks, the railway station, the
museum, the Eussian church, the Governor's residence
and that of the Admiral commanding, which is sur-
rounded by a Public Garden, while the houses of the
more affluent merchants are well and substantially
built. In the I'ublic Garden tlie naval band plays
twice a week during the summer. There is a Naval
Club, to which civilians are admitted as non-voting
members, two or three hotels, a gymnasium or school
for boys, an institute for girls, and military and naval
hospitals. The town has a population of about 30,000,
NICOLAJEWSK 5
most of whom are of European extraction. The retail
trade is principally in the hands of Germans and
Chinese, and the port is one of importance, British,
German, and Japanese steamers doing most of the
carrying trade, and the port is the terminus of the
Eussian Volunteer Fleet. A large garrison is main-
tained, and the total number of troops in Vladivostock
and the neighbourhood is believed to amount to not
much less than 100,000, but exact figures are not
obtainable. In June, 1891, the Czarewitch cut the
first sod of the Vladivostock section of the Siberian
Kailway, which is now approaching completion. The
railway extends to a distance of about 250 miles, the
accommodation and service are very good, and the fares
very reasonable.
NICOLAJEWSK
The port and settlement of Nicolajewsk, founded in
1851 by Admiral Nevelskoi, is situated on the river
Amur, about 29 miles from its mouth. The Amur is
here about nine miles in width, with a depth in mid-
stream of eight to nine fathoms and a current of three
to four knots, thoiigh the river is very shallow in parts,
even in mid-stream. It is navigable for vessels of light
draught for more than 2000 miles, and vessels of 12 feet
draught can get up 600 miles. The town is built on a
plateau 50 feet above the sea level, and gradually slopes
down to the river to the eastward.
The most conspicuous edifice is the Cathedral, round
which the town is built. This structure is imposing in
appearance, with a large west tower, having belfry and
dome, but it is built of wood and is already showing
signs of deterioration. At the back of the Cathedral is
a large grass-grown square, two sides of which are
occupied by Barracks, Governor's House, and Police
Station. There are few substantial houses in the town.
6 EASTERN SIBERIA
except those used as public buildings or stores, and the
buildings are small and wholly built of wood. There
is little trade except in fish, quantities of salmon being
dried and cured here. Since the naval and military
headquarters were transferred to Vladivostock the place
has declined in importance.
JAPAN
JAPAN
Constitution and Government.
The government of the Japanese Empire was formerly
that of an absolute monarchy. In the year 1868 the
now ruling sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the
power of the Shogun, together with that of the Daimios,
or feudal nobles, who, on the 25th June, 1869, resigned
their lands, revenues, and retainers to the Mikado, by
whom they were permitted to retain one-tenth of their
original incomes, but ordered to reside in the capital in
future. The sovereign bears the name of Emperor ;
but the appellation by which he is generally known in
foreign countries is the ancient title of Mikado.
Mutsu-hito, the reigning monarch, was born at Kyoto,
on November 3rd, 1852 ; succeeded his father, Komei
Tenno, 1867 ; married December 28th, 1868, to Princess
Haru-ko, born April 17th, 1850, daughter of Prince
Itchijo. The reigning Emperor is the 121st of an
unbroken dynasty, which was founded 660 B.C. By
the ancient and regular law of succession the crown
devolves upon the eldest son, and, failing male issue,
upon the eldest daughter of the sovereign. This law
has often been disregarded in consequence of the
partiality of the monarch or the ambition of powerful
ministers, which was one of the principal causes that
culminated in the dual system of government in Japan.
The throne has frequently been occupied by a female.
A new law of succession was promulgated in February.
1889, which excludes females from the Imperial throne.
lO JAPAN
The power of the Mikado was formerly absolute, but
its exercise was controlled to some extent by custom
and public opinion. His Majesty, in 1875, when the
Senate and Supreme Judicial Tribunal were founded,
solemnly declared his earnest desire to have a constitu-
tional system of government. The Mikado has long
been regarded as the spiritual as well as the temporal
head of the Empire, but although the Shinto faith is
held to be a form of national religion, the Emperor
does not interfere in religious matters, and all religions
are tolerated in Japan. The Ecclesiastical Department
was, in 1877, reduced to a simple bureau under the
control of the Minister of the Interior. The Mikado
acts through an Executive Ministry divided into nine
departments, namely : — Gwaimu Sho (Foreign Affairs),
Naimu Sho (Interior), Okura Sho (Finance), Kaigun
Sho (Navy), Eikugun Sho (Army), Shiho Sho (Justice),
Mombu Sho (Education), Noshomu Sho (Agriculture
and Commerce), and Teishin Sho (Communications).
In 1888 a Privy Council, modelled on that of Great
Britain, was constituted. The new Constitution,
promised by the Mikado in 1881, was proclaimed on
the 11th February, 1889, and in July, 1890, the first
Parliament was elected and met on the 29th November.
The Parliamentary system is bicameral, the House of
Peers and the House of Representatives constituting
the Imperial Diet. The Upper House is partly elective,
partly hereditary, and partly nominated. The Lower
House consists of 300 members, to be elected by ballot,
and its duration is fixed at four years, but in case of
necessity the term may be prolonged. The Emperor
nominates the Ministers forming the Cabinet, and there
is no recognition of the responsibility of the Cabinet to
the Diet.
The Empire is divided for administrative purposes
into three Fu, or cities (Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka), and
forty-three Ken, or prefectures, including the Loochoo
Islands, which have been converted into a ken and
named Okinawa. The island of Yezo is under a
JAPAN 1 1
separate administration called Hokkaido-cho, and For-
mosa is governed as a colony. These fu and ken are
governed by prefects, who are all of equal rank, are
under control of the Naimu Sho, and have limited
powers, being required to submit every matter, unless
there is a precedent for it, to the Minister of the
Interior. Nor have they any concern in judicial pro-
ceedings, which come under the cognizance of the
forty-eight Local Courts and the seven Supreme Courts
at Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Miyagi,
and Hakodate, over which the Daishin In presides at
Tokyo.
Previous to the last change of Government, which
restored the ancient Imperial regime, the administra-
tive authority rested with the Shogun (Military Com-
mander), whom foreigners were at first led to recognize
as the temporal sovereign, and with whom they
negotiated treaties of peace and commerce. The
Shogunate was founded in 1184 by Yoritomo, a general
of great valour and ability, and was continued through
several dynasties until 1869,,when the Tokugawa family
were dispossessed of the usurped authority. Under the
Shogun three hundred or more Daimios (feudal princes)
shared the admioistrative power, being practically
supreme in their respective domains, conditionally upon
their loyalty to the Shogun ; but their rank und power
disappeared with the Shogunate. On the 7th July,
1884, however, His Majesty issued an Imperial Notifi-
cation and Eescript rehabilitating the nobility, and
admitting to its ranks the most distinguished civil and
military officials who took part in the work of the
Eestoration. The old titles were abolished, and have
been replaced by those of Prince {Ko), Marquis (Ko),
Count {Haku), Viscount {Shi), and Baron {Ban).
Eevenue and Expenditure.
In the Budget for 1899-1900 the estimate of revenue
amounts to 188,930,635 yen, while the expenditures
aggregate 218,807,147 yen, showing a deficit of
1 2 JAPAN
29,870,512 yen. The deficit is provided for in a special
budget. Compared with the previous year the revenue
has decreased by 60,904,444 yen and the expenditures
by 9,740,788 yen. Of the revenue 143,501,401 yen
belong to the ordinary and "45,429,234 yen to the extra-
ordinary section. In the extraordinary section a
decrease of 83,038,004 yen is noticeable in the amount
of public loans, appropriations from the Indemnity,
supplements to shipbuilding fund, sums brought forward
from the previous year, expenses disbursed in connec-
tion with the garrison of Weihaiwei, etc. Of the
expenditure 139,718,500 yen belong to the Ordinary
and 79,088,646 yen to the extraordinary section.
Included in the extraordinary expenditure are votes for
military and naval expansion, under the Military and
Naval extension schemes. These schemes are divided
into two periods, the first period programme and the
second period programme, begiiming with 1st April,
1896, and terminating 31st March, 1906, and the in-
tended expenditure is as follows : — Army, first period,
43,329,400 yen ; second period, 38,350,000 yen ; total,
81,679,400 yen. Navy, first period, 116,086,400 yen ;
second period, 144,618,770 yen ; total, 260,705,170 yen ;
making a grand total for Army and Navj' of 342,384,570.
The first period army programme is divided into five
headings, namely, construction of forts, building and
equipment of barracks, manufacture of arms, develop-
ment of arsenals, and extraordinary constructions ; in
the second period programme only the first three items
appear. In the ordinary expenditure there is also a
large increase in the Army and Navy votes to provide
for the increase in the number of the officers and men.
In 1899 a sterling loan of £10,000,000 was issued.
The loan is for 55 years, from January 1st, 1899, but
is redeemable at £100 per cent, after January 1st, 1909,
by drawings from time to time at the option of the
Government of Japan, on their giving six months'
notice. The rate of interest is 4 per cent., and the loan
was issued at £90 per £100. The proceeds of the loan
JAPAN 13
are to be applied towards the completion of the various
remunerative public works cited in the following Acts
of Parliament : — Eailway Construction Loan of 1892,
Public Undertakings Loan of 1896, Hokkaido Eailway
Construction Loan of 1896, the law relating to the
placing of a public loan in a foreign country of 1899.
The expenditure under these Acts is estimated to be as
follows : — £8,900,000 for railway construction and im-
provement ; £900,000 for establishment of steel works ;
£1,000,000 for extension of the telephone service. On
March 31st, 1899, before the issue of the last loan,
the national debt stood as follows : — Funded debt,
£39,125,000 ; debt to the Bank of Japan, £2,200,000 ;
paper money (for the redemption of which by March
31st, 1900, provision has been made), £511,000 ; total,
£41,836,000. On this it was remarked in the prospectus
of the 1899 loan that "The amount of debt, therefore,
is 18s. per head of the population," but against this the
State owns assets (railways, telegraphs, telephones, etc.)
valued at £30,000,000 sterling, and lands valued at
about £82,000,000 " (exclusive of timber)." The total
debt now stands at £51,836,000.
Akmy and Navy.
Until the war with China, the Army consisted of six
divisions and the Imperial Guards, with a peace footing
strength of 70,000 in round numbers and a war footing
of 268,000, exclusive of the Gendarmerie and the Ezo
Militia ; but on the conclusion of the war a large
scheme of expansion was adopted, under which the
number of divisions is to be raised to twelve, exclusive
of the Guards, so that the peace footing will be 145,000,
and the war footing 520,000, the expansion to be con-
cluded in eight years from 1896.
At the conclusion of the war with China, Japan found
herself in possession of a lighting fleet of forty-three
serviceable vessels — independent of twenty-six torpedo
boats— their aggregate displacement being 78,774 tons.
14 JAPAN
Of these, ten, with an aggregate displacement of
15,055 tons, had been captured from .China — namely,
an armour-clad turret-ship of 7335 tons, two steel
cruisers, six steel gunboats, and one wooden gunboat.
(Prior to the capture of the Chen-yuen, now called the
Chin-yen, Japan did not possess a line-of-battle ship.
Her fleet consisted entirely of comparatively small
vessels.) There were also on the stocks two steel
cruisers and a steel despatch vessel. An expansion
scheme, extending from 1st April, 1896, to 31st March,
1906, was then adopted and is now being carried out,
vessels being in course of construction in Great Britain,
the United States, France, and Germany, as well as in
the home yards. The building programme is as follows :
— 4 first-class battle-ships of 15,240 tons each, 6 first-
class cruisers of 9200 tons each, 3 second-class cruisers
of 4850 tons each, 2 third-class cruisers of 3200
tons each, 3 torpedo-gunboats of 1200 tons each,
1 torpedo depot-ship, 11 torpedo-boat destroyers, 89
torpedo-boats. If these ships be added to the strength
of the Navy at the date of the commencement of the
expansion scheme, it results that the total force in
1906 wOl be 6 first-class battle-ships from 12,510 to
15,240 tons, 1 second-class battle-ship of 7335 tons, 6
first-class armoured cruisers of over 9200 tons each, 7
second-class cruisers of over 4000 tons each, 6 tliird-
class cruisers of over" 3000 tons each, 12 fourth-class
cruisers of over 1500 tons each, 3 torpedo gunboats of
1200 tons each, 1 torpedo depot-sliip of 6750 tons, 11
torpedo-boat destroyers, 115 torpedo-boats, 2.j gun-
boats, sloops, etc. The battle-ships Fuji and Yashima,
built in England, arrived in Japan in the latter part of
1897. The Fuji is somewhat after the Boyal Sovereign
type ; she has a displacement of 12,450 tons, and engines
of 14,000 horse-power, and carries a powerful armament.
Acting on the experience gained at the engagement at
Yalu, especially of the (fisastrous effects of shell fire
from macliine guns, metal has been substituted for
wood wherever possible, even in the light cabin and
JAPAN 15
seamen's quarters fittings ; and there are armoured
screens everywhere. There are two barbettes plated
with 14-in. armour, a conning tower forward also 14 in.
thick, and the director tower aft 3 in. thick. The
deck is armoured all over, terminating in a formidable
ram at the bows, the best Harveyed armour being used
in construction. The Yashima is a sister ship to the
Fuji. The Tahusago, an Elswick-built cruiser of 4300
tons, carrying a powerful armament and having a speed
of twenty-four knots, arrived in 1898. The sister
ships, Asama and the Tokiwa, first-class cruisers of
9855 tons, built in England, and five torpedo-boat
destroyers, arrived in 1899. The Kasagi, 4978 tons,
and the Chitose, 4836 tons, second-class cruisers, built
in the United States, with English armament, also
arrived in 1899.
Population, Teade, and Industry.
The total area of Japan, exclusive of Formosa, is
estimated at 156,604 square miles, and the population,
according to census returns taken in December, 1898,
was43,228,863, namely, 21,823,651 males and21,405,212
females. The increase during the last ten years has
slightly exceeded one per cent, per annum. The
empire is geographically divided into the four islands :
Honshiu, the central and most important territory ;
Kiushiu, "nine provinces," the south-western island ;
Shikoku, " the four provinces," the southern island ;
and Yezo, the most northerly and least developed. The
former three islands are sub-divided into eight large
roads, containing sixty-six provinces, and the latter
(Yezo or Hokkaido) is divided into eleven provinces.
Administratively, as before mentioned, the Empire is
divided into fu and ken, each ken containing more
than one province.
The total value of the foreign trade for the last six
years was ; —
1 6 JAPAN
Exports
Imports
1893.
Yen.
... 89,712,864
... 88,257,172
1894.
Yen.
213,146,086
117,481,955
1899.
Yen.
136,112,178
129,260,578
Total
... 177,970,036
230,728,041
265,372,756
Exports
Imports
1896.
Yen.
... 117,842,761
... 171,674,474
1897.
Yen.
163,135,077
219,300,772
1893.
Ten.
165,753,753
277,502,156
Total
... 289,517,235
382,435,849
443,255,909
The export of raw silk (not including waste) in-
creased from 2,110,315 catties in 1890 to 5,810,046 in
1895, fell to 3,918,994 in 1896, rose again to 6,919,861
in 1897, but fell to 4,837,329 catties in 1898. The
export of tea has shown a slow but steady decline during
late years ; it amounted to 38,826,661 catties in 1895,
33,241,472 in 1896, 32,632,683 in 1897, and 30,826,632
in 1898. The export of coal and coal dust in 1898 was
1,805,364 tons, and 381,426 tons for ships' use, against
1,530,147 tons and 572,865 tons for ships' use in 1897.
The export of matches has steadily increased. It was
22,078,362 gross in 1898, against 19,543,646 in 1897,
17,979,849 in 1896, 16,914,027 in 1895, and 13,843,022
in 1894.
Of imports, raw cotton increased from 521,417 piculs
in 1890 to 1,551,527 in 1895, 1,765,550 in 1896,
2,298,643 in 1897, and 2,553,586 piculs in 1898;
showing the rapid progress the country is making in
supplying herself with the manufactured goods she
requires. 14,591,083 catties of cotton yarn were im-
ported in 1895, 20,014,128 in 1896, 16,090,8oo in 1897,
and 15,929,991 in 1898. There was a continuous in-
crease in the importation of cotton piece goods, from a
value of yen 4,789,240 in 1892 to yen 11,843.001 in
1896, but a fall to yen 9,920,046 in 1897, and although
the imports in 1898 increased to yen 11,332,627, the
amount is under that of 1896, an inevitable result of
the establishment of so many mills in the country and
in its near neighbour China. Woollen goods were im-
ported to the value of yen 7,982,882 in 1894, yen
JAPAN
17
12,780,326 in 1895, and yen 18,268,460 in 1896 ; but
1897 showed a marked reverse, the value in that year
being yen 12,009,902, while 1898 showed only a slight
improvement, namely, to yen 13,069,780. Metals have
shown a steady increase from yen 6,792,024 in 1893 to
yen 17,553,543 in 1896, yen 20,306,841 in 1897, and
yen 23,646,159 in 1898. The importation of kerosine
oil rose from 32,689,275 gallons in 1892 to 54,692,886
in 1896, 61,058,217 in 1897, and to 67,905,455 in 1898.
Sugar imported showed a steady increase from 1,675,315
piculs in 1891 to 2,333,528 in 1896, 3,314,512 in 1897,
and to 4,473,153 piculs in 1898.
The trade of 1898 was divided between the Treaty
Ports as under : —
Exports
Imports
Total
Yokohama. Kobe. Nagasaki. Osaka.
Yen. Yen. Yen. Yen.
... 80,312,435 60,119,645 6,587,276 3,165,082
.. 111,014,140 138,133,797 19,698,645 3,555,937
Exports
Imports
Total
191,326,575 108,253,442 26,285,921 6,721,019
Hakodate.
Y'en.
.. 1,248,719
820,020
.. 2,068,739
Other ports. Totals.
Yen. Yen.
14,320,596 165,753,753
4,279,617 277,502,156
18,600,213
443,255,909
The following was the total value of the trade with
foreign countries in 1898 : —
Exports.
Imports.
Total.
Yen.
Yen.
Yen.
United States of America
47,311,155
40,001,098
87,312,253
Great Britain
7,783,643
62,707,573
70,491,216
C!ontinent of Europe and
Russian Asia
29,313,751
43,756,148
73,069,899
China
29,193,175
30,523,861
59,717,036
India, Australia, and Canada
10,495,750
42,324,670
52,820,420
Hongkong
31,473,896
15,904,467
47,378 363
Corea
5,844,332
4,796,032
10,640,364
Philippines and SJam
157,153
7,467,792
7,624,945
Other countries
1,223,797
30,020,515
31,244,312
Coal, etc., for ships' use ...
2,957,101
165,753,753
2,957,101
277,502,156
443,255,909
C
i8
JAPAN
The following table shows the total values of goods
exported in 1898 : —
Bamboo and bamboo
Yen.
Paper ware
YeD.
440,686
ware
859,399
Porcelain and earth-
Camphor and cam-
enware
1,990,781
phor oil
1,257,023
Rice
5,920.185
Oarpets
850,759
Screens
346,085
Coal and coke
12,450,626
Seaweed
711,291
„ for Bhips' use . . .
2,928,177
Shellfish
641,012
Cotton yarn
20,130,485
Silk, floss silk, and
Cotton and cotton
cocoons
44,801,020
piece goods
3,547,560
Silk manufactures . . .
16,816,136
Cuttlefish
1,268,257
Skins, hair, shells.
Drags, medicines,
horn, etc.
799,319
dyes, etc
707,402
Straw-plaits
2,404,003
Fans
539,627
Sulphur
477.013
Ginseng
423,837
Tea
8,215,665
Glass ware
320,944
Textile fabrics, cloth-
Grain, beverages, and
ing, etc
1,180,739
provisions
3,012,638
Timber, wood, and
Kanten or ooUe vege-
planks
462,507
tale
611,336
Tobacco and manu-
Lacquered ware . . .
783,198
factures of
237,057
Matches
6,273,949
Umbrellas
717,375
Mushrooms
631,924
Sundries
3,396,811
Mats for floor
3,938,450
Duty-free goods ...
1,814,064
Metals (mostly cop-
Be-exported articles
2,850,540
per)
Oil and wax
8,845,087
1,191,926
165,753,753
Paper and books ...
958,860
The Imports in 1898 are classified by the Department
of Finance as —
Yen.
Alcohol 2,699,982
Aniline dye ... 1,218,842
Arms and munitions
of war 1,936,686
Beans, peas, and pulse 7,101,103
Beverages and pro-
visions 2,824,798
Books and stationery 488,745
Clothing and apparel 1,061,444
Cotton, raw 45,744,371
Cotton yarn 8,547,588
Cotton piece goods ... 9,884,340
Drugs, medioinea, and
ohemicBls 5,219,391
Yen.
Dyes and paints ... 1,670,938
Dynamite 507,591
Flax, hemp,and manu-
factui-esof ... 1,086,914
Flour 2,031.82.-)
Gloss and gltvas ware 917,237
Grain and seeds ... 884,579
Hair, horns, ivory,
skins, etc 3,077,509
Indigo 2,270,814
Kerosineoil 7,552,879
Locomotive engines 4,265,854
Machinery, instm-
ments, etc, ... 7,224,888
JAPAN
19
Yen.
Yen.
Machinery (spinning)
3,088,762
Sugar
28,619,563
Metals and manufac-
Textile fabrics (mis-
tures of
23,676,063
cellaneous)
3,252,062
Oil and wax (ex. kero-
Tobacco, cigars, and
sine)
1,000,691
cigarettes
6,639,436
Oil-cakes
4,614,967
Vessels, steam and
Paper
3,520,731
sailing
7,508,394
Portland cement
827,209
Watches and clocks
3,313,610
Railway carriages . . .
497,179
Wines and liquors ...
1,398,338
Rice
48,219,810
Wool and manufac-
Silk and silk manu-
tures of
13,069,870
factures
1,920,492
Sundries
7,419,488
Steam boilers and pn-
gines
697,173
277,502,156
The total Shipping, including junks, from and to
foreign countries, for the year 1898 was —
Entered. Tonnage. Cleared. Tonnage. Total. Tonnage.
Steamers ... 2035 3,174,516 2152 3,322,434 4187 6,496,950
Sailing vessels 1339 207,047 1383 211,026 2722 418,073
3374 3,381,563 3535 3,533,460 6909 6,915,023
2400 steamers of 4,621,052 tons and 25 sailing vessels
of 30,629 tons entered, and 2308 steamers of 4,489,646
tons and 21 sailing vessels of 27,179 tons cleared in the
coast trade between the open ports. Of this tonnage
employed coastwise 54 per cent, was under the British
flag and 27 per cent. Japanese vessels employed in
foreign trade. The merchant vessels entered from
foreign countries in 1898 were divided among the
different nationalities as under : —
steamers.
Tonnage. Sailing.
Tonnage.
Total.
Tonnage.
British 712
1,408,160
59
92,577
771
1,500,737
Japanese (excluding
junks) 701
845,458
149
16,073
850
861,531
German 240
329,447
17
31,700
257
361,147
Norwegian ... 148
152,904
2
2,100
150
155,004
Russian 93
175,192
17
1,438
110
176,630
United States of
America ... 43
101,047
20
39,203
69
140,250
French 31
64,860
1
1,229
32
66,089
Austrian 16
41,940
—
—
16
41,940
Other countries ... 51
55,508
4
2,421
55
57,929
2035 3,174,.'il6 275 186,741 2310 3,361,257
20 JAPAN
The total Customs Eevenue for the same year con-
sisted of — Export Duties, yen 2,080,072; Import
Duties, yen 6,280,620 ; Miscellaneous, yen 314,207 ;
Total, yen 8,674,899. The revenue has doubled since
1887.
By treaties made with a number of foreign govern-
ments the Japanese ports of Kanagawa (Yokohama),
Nagasaki, Kobe, Hakodate, Niigata, and the cities of
Tokyo (formerly called Yedo) and Osaka were thrown
open to foreign commerce. In 1894 a new treaty was
signed with Great Britain by which extraterritoriality
was abolished and the whole country opened to foreign
trade and residence, the treaty to come into force in
July, 1899, provided similar treaties were effected with
the other Powers. This was done, and extraterritoriality
ceased to exist on August 4th, 1899.
Eailways are being rapidly pushed forward, the
mileage having risen from 2136 miles in March, 1894,
to 4200 miles in March, 1899. The State owns 1000
miles of the above 4200 miles of railway.
Currency.
From October, 1897, Japan placed her currency on a
gold basis. The unit of value is a gold dollar weighing
■8333 grammes and containing "75 grammes of fine gold.
The conversion from silver to gold was effected at the
ratio of 1 to 32-348.
Education.
Education is very general in Japan, and is making
great progress. There are numerous Middle Schools,
Normal Schools, and Colleges for special studies, such
as Law, Science, Medicine, Mining, Agriculture, and
Foreign Langunges, and several Female High Schools
have been established, and are carefully fostered by the
Government. In order to facilitate the prosecution
of foreign studies the Government of the Mikado has
TOKYO 2 1
engaged many European professors, and also sent, at
the public expense, a large number of students to
America and Europe.
TOKYO
The capital of Japan [until the Eestoration called
Yedo] is situated at the north of the Bay of Yedo, has
a circumference of 27 miles, and covers a surface of
nearly 36 square miles. The Sumida, or Okawa (Great
Eiver), runs through the city, dividing Tokyo proper
from the districts on the east side called Honjo and
Fukagawa.
Tokyo as viewed from the bay is a pleasant-looking
city, being well situated on undulating ground, and
possessing abundant foliage. The city is divided into
fifteen grand divisions, and its suburbs into six divisions.
It is, in fact, more like an aggregation of towns than
one great city. The Castle of Tokyo occupies a com-
manding position on a hill a little to the westward of
the centre of the city. It is enclosed in double walls,
and surrounded by a fine broad moat. Within the
Castle formerly stood the Imperial Palace and several
public offices, but the destructive fire of the 3rd
April, 1872, levelled these ancient and massive
buildings, leaving only the surrounding lofty turrets
and walls. A new Palace on the old site has been
constructed, and the Mikado took up his residence
there in January, 1889. The Imperial Garden called
Pukiage is situated within the enclosure of the Castle.
It is tastefully laid out in the pure native style, and
contains fine forest trees, rare and beautiful plants of
all kinds, a large pond, cascades, etc., and is most
carefully kept. This fine garden well repays inspec-
tion, and admission can be obtained by visitors with
orders granted by the Department of tlie Imperial
Household.
Between the Castle and the outer walls, a large area
2 2 JAPAN
was formerly occupied by the numerous palaces of the
Daimios, but nearly all these feudal erections have now
given place to smart brick or stone buildings, used as
Public Offices, Barracks, Government Schools, etc., so
that at the present time very few of the Daimios'
palaces remain to illustrate what old Yedo was like
in the time of the Shogunate. Some of those that
remain, near the Castle, have been converted into
Government Offices. They are large, long buildings
of a single high story, plain, but substantial, with no
pretensions to architecture, but interesting as reminis-
cences of feudal Japan.
The remaining portion of the city outside the walls
is very densely inhabited, and may be called the com-
mercial district of Tokyo. It has a circumference of
24 miles, and covers an area of about 29 square nules.
The most important part of the business quarter is on
the east of the Castle, and is traversed by a main street
running from the north to the south-west under different
names. A considerable length of this thoroughfare,
which is called Ginza, is lined with newly built brick
buildings in the European style ; the road is wide and
well kept, the pavement broad and planted with trees
on either side. As it is in close contiguity to the
principal railway station, it is always very animated
and thronged with vehicles and foot passengers.
The north end of the main street leads to the new
public park or garden named Uyeno, which was formerly
occupied by the magnificent Temple founded and main-
tained by the Shoguns, and which was destroyed by fire
during the war of Restoration in July, 1868. In these
grounds the Industrial Exhibition of 1877 was erected,
when the gardens were converted into a public pleasure
resort by the Government. Several exhibitions have
since been held here and have proved very successful.
In Uyeno is also situated the fine Imperial Museum
(Haku-butsu-kwan).
Among the places much resorted to by visitors is the
ancient temple of Kwannon, at Asakusa, not far from
TOKYO 23
Uyeno, one of the most popular and most frequented
temples in Japan. The temple is elevated about 20
feet from the ground. A flight of steps gives access to
the interior. There is a chief altar at the extreme end
of the temple, with side chapels at its right and left,
containing a great number of wooden images and ex votos.
The interior is not very large, and is not so conspicuous
for cleanliness as most of the public buildings in Japan.
At the right of the temple there is a fine old Pagoda, and
near it two colossal stone statues. A new park was also
opened close to the temple about the same time as that
of Uyeno. Thus, with Shiba, in the south-west, where
are to be seen some of the splendid shrines of the
Shoguns, among the chief glories of Tokyo, there are
three large public gardens within the city. The build-
ings which are called the Temple of Confucius were
formerly the University of Tokyo, but this has been
superseded since the Eestoration by the Teikoku Dai-
gaku and other schools in which foreign instructors
are employed. There are altogether 1275 temples in
Tokyo, some of which are fine edifices. The building
in which the Imperial Diet meets is a plain edifice,
and is only intended for temporary use.
The districts of Honjo and Fukagawa form the quiet
portion of the capital. This quarter is connected with
Tokyo proper by five great bridges, some of which are
constructed of iron and some of wood. They are called,
commencing on the north, Adsuma-Bashi, Umaya-
Bashi, Eyogoku-Bashi, 0-Hashi, and Eitai-Bashi re-
spectively. The quay on the banks of the Sumida
forms a spacious and handsome street, and may be
especially recommended to a traveller who has only
a few days to spend in Tokyo. In passing along the
quay he will see across the stream several fine temples
and great buildings which stand on the western banks
of the Great Eiver, and he may get at the same time
a very good idea of the animated river-life of the
Sumida, whose waters are always covered with junks
and boats of all descriptions.
24 JAPAN
A great part of the remaining area forming the district
north of the Castle is covered by paddy-fields, in the
midst of which rise picturesquely situated houses.
There are also extensive pleasure-gardens, such as
Asuka-yama, and neat little villages. The part west
of the Castle contains fifty temples, and a number of
nobles' palaces. The district on the south of the Castle,
with an area of about VJ\ square miles, contains about
sixty temples. The most remarkable among them is
Yutenji in Meguro.
Several great fires have during the last two decades
or so swept Tokyo, and these have led to great improve-
ments and widening of the streets. Rows of good houses
in brick and stone, and new bridges, in many cases
of iron or stone, have been built, and the city has in
many portions been thoroughly modernised. Tramways
have been laid and the cars are usually crowded with
passengers. The main streets and those adjacent to
them are lighted by electricity, and the remaiuder by
gas and oil-lamps. A race-course has been formed close
to Uyeno. Lines of telegraph, amounting in all to 200
miles, connect the various parts of the city with one
another, and with the country lines. The main streets
are broad and well kept, and improvements attend the
work of reconstruction after each conflagration. But
as the city is in a transition state, it necessarily
presents many strange anomalies. Side by side with
lofty stone buildings stand rows of rude wooden houses.
As with the buildings so with the people; while the
mass still wear the native dress, numbers appear in
European costume. The soldiers and police are dressed
in uniform on the Western model.
The environs of Tokyo are very picturesque, and
offer a great variety of pleasant walks or rides.
Foreigners will find much to interest them in the
country round. The finest scenery is at the northern
and western sides of the city, where the country is
surrounded by beautiful hills, from which there is a
distant view of the noble mountains of Hakone, while
YOKOHAMA 25
beyond rises in solitary grandeur the towering peak of
Fuji-san, covered with snow the greater part of the
year. The population of Tokyo, according to the official
census of 1895, was 1,342,153.
The native Press is represented by more than a
hundred newspapers, several of which are dailies.
There are 1225 schools of different classes, including
one university. A large and handsome hotel, designed
for foreigners and called the Imperial Hotel, was opened
in 1890. There is also a first-class hotel, called the
Metropole, under foreign management.
YOKOHAMA
Yokohama is the principal Treaty port of Japan,
and was opened to foreign trade in July, 1859. It is
situated on the Bay of Yokohama, a small bay on the
western side of the Gulf of Yedo, in lat. 35 deg. 26
min. 11 sec. K, and long. 139 deg. 39 min. 20 sec,
in the island of Honshiu, and is distant about eighteen
miles from the capital, with which it is connected by a
line of railway. The town, having sprung up from a
poor fishing- village only since the site was selected
for a treaty port instead of the little town of Kanagawa,
possesses few attractions for the visitor. The scenery
around, however, is hilly and pleasing, and on clear
days the snow-crowned summit and graceful outlines
of Fuji-san, a volcanic mountain 12,370 feet high —
celebrated in Japanese literature and depicted on in-
numerable native works of art — is most distinctly
visible, though some 75 miles distant. Yokohama
is compactly built of low houses with tiled roofs.
The town is divided into two nearly equal parts, the
western half being occupied by what was known, before
the abolition of extraterritoriality, as the foreign settle-
ment. Beyond the plain on which the town is built
rises a sort of semicircle of low hUls called "The Bluff,"
which is thickly dotted with handsome foreign villas
and dwelling-houses in various styles of architecture.
26 JAPAN
all standing in pretty gardens. From these dwellings
charming prospects are obtainahle. Along the water-
front runs a good road called the Bund, on which,
facing the water, stand many of the principal houses
and hotels and the United Club, The streets are fairly
paved, kerbed, and drained. There are Anglican,
French Catholic, Union Protestant, and several native
Mission Churches in the settlement. A fine Cricket
and Eecreation Ground exists in the settlement, and
there are well-laid-out Public Gardens on the Bluff.
There is a fairly good Eace-course situated about two
miles from the settlement. A good Boating Club
also exists, which has provided facilities for deep-sea
bathing. The Public Hall, containing a theatre and
assembly rooms, neatly built of brick, is situated at
the top of Camp Hill, and was opened in 1885. The
chief public buildings in the native town are the
Kencho, opposite the British Consulate, the Town
Hall, which has a clock tower, and the Custom House.
The Eailway Station is also a creditable structure,
being a well-designed and commodious terminus. On
the 12th August, 1899, a disastrous fire occurred in the
Iseza Kicho district, in which some seventeen streets
were swept by the flames, the number of houses destroyed
being 3237. The town is now in the enjoyment of an
excellent water-supply, large Waterworks having been
completed in 1887. The harbour is much exposed, but
two breakwaters, of an aggregate length of 12,000 feet,
have been built and are so projected as to practically
enclose the whole of the anchorage, leaving an entrance
650 feet wide between their extremities. There is a
pier 2000 feet long at which vessels may load or dis-
charge. A graving dock was opened on the 26th
April, 1897. It is built of large blocks of granite and
is 351 feet on the blocks, its lengtli from the outside of
the entrance to the head is 419 feet 10 inches and from
the outside caisson to the head 400 feet 3 inches. The
width of the entrance is 00 feet 8 inches at the top and
45 feet 11 inches at tlie bottom. The depth is 35 feet
Ch
YOKOHAMA 2 J
1 inch on the inside, and 31 feet 2 inches on the sill.
The depth of water on the blocks is 27 feet 2 inches at
spring tides, 26 feet 2 inches at ordinary springs, and
19 feet 8 inches at low water of spring tides. This is
the smaller or No. 2 Dock of the Company. The
No. 1 Dock, completed at the end of 1898, is 478 feet
10 inches on the blocks and has a depth inside of
36 feet 3 inches and on the sill of 34 feet 1 inch, the
depth of water on the blocks being 28 feet 10 inches
at springs, 27 feet 11 inches at ordinary springs, and
21 feet 4 inches at low water of springs. Yokohama
is well supplied with hotels. There are four English
daily papers published in the port, namely, the Japan
Gazette, Japan Herald, Japan Daily Mail, and Japan
Daily Advertiser, and several weeklies.
The Japanese population of Yokohama numbered, on
the 31st December, 1897, 188,455. The number of
foreign residents exclusive of Chinese was 2,096, of
whom 869 were British. The Chinese popidation was
returned at 2015.
In 1898 the values of the different classes of Imports
were : —
Yen.
Beverages and provi-
sions 2,818,705
Cotton, raw 5,322,372
Cotton yarn 5,679,092
Cotton piece goods. . . 6,341,161
Drugs, medicines,
and chemicals . . . 4,492,650
Dyes and paints ... 3,223,701
Kerosineoil ... 3,016,063
Machinery, arms,
etc 8,179,458
Metals and manufac-
tures of
Eice
Steam vessels
Sugar
Wool and woollen
manufactures
Sundries
Total imports foreign
goods
Yen.
10,683,235
14,748,780
5,023,194
14,449,715
7,890,372
19,020,966
110,889,404
The values of the principal articles of Export in the
same year were as follows : —
Grain, beverages, and
provisions ... 1,894,376
Metals (mostly cop-
per) 3,543,541
Silk and cocoons ... 44,174,537
Silk piece goods ... 16,191,450
Tea
Sundries
Total exports native
Yen.
5,389,381
8,581,698
79,774,983
28 JAPAN
The value of the Imports in 1897 was yen 86,790,195,
and of the Exports in same year yen 90,368,531.
The total export of raw silk during the season from
1st July, 1898, to same date 1899 was 50,661 bales.
The total export for the previous year was 56,783
bales. The export of tea during the season 1st May,
1898, to same date 1899 was 26,545,888 lbs., nearly all
for America. The export during the previous season
was 27,206,290 lbs.
HAKODATE
This, the most northerly of the treaty ports of Japan,
is situated in the south of Yezo in the Straits of
Tsugaru, which divide that island from Honshiu. The
port lies in latitude 41 deg. 47 min. 8 sec. N., and
longitude 140 deg. 45 min. 34 sec. E., and the harbour
is nearly land-locked. The town clusters at the foot
and on the slope of a bold rock known to foreigners as
Hakodate Head, 1106 feet in height. The surrounding
country is hilly, volcanic, and striking, but the town
itself possesses few attractions. A row of fine temples,
with lofty picturesque roofs, occupying higher ground
than the rest of the town, are the most conspicuous
buildings. There are some Public Gardens at the
eastern end of the town, which contain a small but
interesting Museum. Waterworks for suppljring the
town with pure water were completed in 1889. The
climate of Hakodate is healthy and bracing. The hottest
month is August, but the thermometer then rarely rises
above 90 degrees Fahr. ; in the winter it sometimes
sinks to 18 degrees. The mean temperature through-
out the year is about 48 degrees. The population of
Hakodate at the close of 1897 was 74,000. The
number of foreign residents was 118, of whom 43 were
British.
Tlie foreign trndd of the port is small. The value of
the imports dcM.lined from $076,534 in 1890 to $12,101
OSAKA 29
in 1892, but increased by an average of slightly over a
hundred per cent, each year to Yen 820,820 in 1898.
The exports in 1898 amounted to Yen 1,248,719, against
Yen 1,264,267 in 1897. The agricultural resources of
Yezo have been to some extent developed under the
auspices of the Kaitakushi or Colonization Department.
The rich pasture lands are well adapted for breeding
cattle. In the valuable and extensive fisheries on the
coast, however, the chief exports of the future from
Hakodate are to be looked for. Increasing quantities
of dried fish and seaweed are exported annually, mostly
to China. The mineral resources of Yezo are large,
and may also some day yield a valuable addition to
the exports of this port. There are now three large
coal-mines in operation, one in Poronai, one at
Ikushunbetsu, and a third at Sorachi. Hakodate is
connected with the capital by telegraph. A railway
from Otaru to Sapporo, 22 miles long, was opened to
public traffic on the 28th November, 1880, and has
since been carried on to Poronai, where are some large
coal-mines, the total length of the line being 56 miles.
A branch to Ikushunbetsu, seven miles, has since
been made, and another line from the coal mines to
Mororan, a port on the south-east of the island, a
distance of 143 miles, has been completed and was
opened to traffic in July, 1892.
OSAKA
Osaka is the second city in Japan in point of size and
commercial importance, and has not inaptly been
termed the Venice of the Far East, owing to the
manner in which it is intersected by canals. The city
is compact and well laid out, the streets being regular,
clean, and animated. Osaka is essentially Japanese,
though a go-ahead and progressive city, and possesses
much of interest to the foreign visitor. It is situated
in the province of Settsu, and is built on the banks of
30 JAPAN
the liver Ajikawa, about five miles from the sea. The
river is only navigable for small vessels, and on the
opening of the railway to Kobe, the foreign trade of
Osaka commenced to decline. Almost all the foreign
firms in the latter city have removed to Kobe. The
most imposing, and at the same time the most interest-
ing object to be seen in Osaka is the Castle, erected in
1583 by one of the Shoguns, the famous Toyotomi
Hideyoshi Though less extensive than that of Tokyo,
it is a much grander and more striking edifice, and is,
indeed, next to that of Nagoya, the finest example of
the ancient feudal castles of Japan. It is nov? occupied
by the Osaka garrison, and forms the headquarters of
one of the six great military districts, and it has also
within its inclosure an extensive military arsenaL The
city is the seat of the provincial government, which is
called Fucho, in contradistinction to the other pro-
vincial governments, which are termed Kencho. Osaka
is the seat of numerous industries, including cotton-
spinning mills, shipbuilding yards, and ironworks, and
the Imperial Mint is located there. This establishment
is in active operation, and turns out a coinage not
surpassed by any in the world. The imports in 1898
amounted to yen 3,555,937, and the exports to yen
3,165,082 against yen 4,424,742 imports and yen
2,342,437 exports in the previous year. The popula-
tion of Osaka was 490,009 in December, 1895. The
number of foreign residents on 31st December, 1897,
was 121, not including Chinese. The British and
American residents, numbering 104 are, with few
exceptions, missionaries.
KOBE-HYOGO
Kobe was until 1892 the foreign port of the adjoining
town of Hyogo, and was opened to foreign trade in
1868 ; in October, 1892, Hyogo was also declared by
the Japanese Government to form part of the open
KOBE-HYOGO 3 1
port. The port is finely situated on the Idzumi-nada,
at the gate of the far-famed Inland Sea. The harbour
is good, and affords safe anchorage for vessels of almost
any size. The two towns face the land-locked water
covered with white sails, while behind, at a distance of
about a mile, rises a range of picturesque and lofty
hills, some of which attain an altitude of about 2500
feet, and the steep sides of which are partly covered
with pines. Kobe and Hyogo stretch for some three
miles along this strip of land between the hills and the
water. The Foreign quarter at Kobe is well laid out ;
the streets are broad and clean, and lighted with gas.
The Bund has a fine stone embankment, and extends
the whole length of Kobe. The foreign houses are
neatly built, and the Sannomiya railway station, within
three minutes' walk of the Concession, has a very
English look. The railway terminus is at the other
end of Kobe, where it meets Hyogo, and there are
extensive carriage works adjoining the station. There
is a good Club and a spacious Eecreation Ground. The
Union Protestant Church and a French Eoman Catholic
Church are in what was formerly termed the Con-
cession. A new English Episcopal Church, All Saints,
was opened in 1898 on the hill behind, and there is
also a native Protestant Church in Kobe town. The
two principal hotels are the Oriental and the Occi-
dental. Two foreign daily papers, the Kohe Chronicle
and the Kobe Herald, are published in Kobe. There
are one or two native papers. The population of
Kobe-Hyogo in December, 1895, was 161,406. There
were over 2,000 foreign residents in Kobe in 1899, of
whom more than half were Chinese. The British
numbered 534, the Germans 136, and the Americans
155.
The old town of Hyogo is only divided from Kobe
by the river Minato, which is spanned by a substantial
stone bridge. Hyogo contains few features of interest,
and the streets and shops are inferior to those of Kobe,
its population being much smaller and nearly stationary.
32
JAPAN
The Temple of Shinkoji, which possesses a large bronze
Buddha, is worth a visit ; and there is a monument to
the Japanese hero, Kiyomori, erected in 1286, in a
grove of trees in the vicinity of the temple, which
claims some attention from its historic associations.
On the Kobe side of the Minato-gawa also stands a
temple dedicated to Kusunski, so famous in Japanese
history for loyalty and valour, who died on the spot in
1336 during the unsuccessful wars for the restoration
of the Mikado's power. In connection with the
Imperial Shipbuilding Yard at Hyogo is a Patent Slip,
which will accommodate vessels up to 2000 tons. Its
total length is 900 feet ; length above water, 300 feet ;
breadth, 38 feet ; declivity, 1 in 20. The slip is worked
by hydraulic power.
Kobe's excellent railway communications both north
and south have naturally tended to centralise trade at
this fast-rising port.
In 1898 the values of the different classes of imports
were : —
Yen.
Yen.
Cotton, raw
37,979,497
Rice
28,814,804
Cotton yarn
2,868,496
Sugar
8,739,320
Cotton piece goods. . .
4,922,114
■Wool and wooUeu
Drugs, chemicals, etc.
3,195,833
manufactures ...
5,147,458
Grains and Heeds ...
5,128,495
8undrie8
18,324,109
Kerosine oil
3,537,934
Machinery, watches,
Total imports foreign
arms, etc.
8,639,274
goods
138,072,813
Metals and manufac-
tures of
10,775,479
The values of the principal articles of export in the
same year were as follows : —
Ciamphor
Yon.
l,163,s,-)l
Cotton yar
17,625,130
Matches
6,089,882
Mats for floor
3,887,991
Metals (chiefly cop-
per)
4,745,698
Eioe
4,601,773
Straw-plaits
1,849,625
„ Yen.
Tea 2,789,331
Textile fabrict> nud
clothing 4,.V23,769
Sundries 11,764,605
Total exports native
goods $59,041,655
NAGASAKI 33
The quantity of tea shipped from Kobe-Hyogo during
the season 1898-1899 was 13,948,634 lbs. Practically
the whole of this went to the United States of America
and Canada.
The following table of values in yen shows the rapid
increase of the foreign trade of the port : —
Imports.
Exports.
Total.
1891.
25,700,501
21,733,718
47,434,219
1892.
30,698,176
21,295,740
51,99.3,916
1893.
■11,294,276
24,968,974
66,263,250
1894.
56,910,503
29,438,113
86,348,616
1895.
63,098,427
38,307,9.i5
101,406,382
1896.
82,546,593
40,317,817
122,864,413
1897.
110,741,830
51,408,080
162,149,910
1898.
138,183,798
60,119,645
198,253,440
NAGASAKI
Nagasaki is a city of great antiquity, and in the early
days of European intercourse with the Far East was
the most important seat of the foreign trade with Japan.
It is admirably situated on the south-western coast of
the Island of Kiushiu. A melancholy interest attaches
to the neighbourhood as the scene of the extinction of
Christianity in the empire and the extermination of
the professors of that religion in 1637. At the entrance
to the harbour lies the celebrated island of Pappenberg,
where thousands of Christian martyrs were thrown
over the high cliff rather than go through the form of
trampling on the cross. Not far from Nagasaki is also
the village of Mogi, where 37,000 Christians suffered
death in defending themselves against the forces sent
to subdue them. When the Christian religion was
crushed and the foreigners expelled, to the Dutch
alone was extended the privilege of trading with Japan,
and they were confined to a small plot of ground at
Nagasaki called Deshima. By the treaty of 1858,
Nagasaki was one of the ports opened to British trade
on the 1st July in the following year.
On entering the harbour of Nagasaki no stranger can
H yAPAN
fail to be struck with the admirable situation of the
town and the beautiful panorama of hilly scenery
opened to his view. The harbour is a landlocked inlet
deeply indented with small bays, about three miles
long, with a width varying from half-a-mile to a mile.
A reclamation scheme is now in progress ; the portion
of the sea in front of what were formerly the foreign
concessions at Deshima and Megasaki is to be reclaimed
and the harbour deepened. It is estimated that the
cost of the work will be four million yen, and that it
will take five years to finish. The town is on the
eastern side of the harbour, and is about two miles
long by about three-quarters of a mile in extreme
width. The foreign quarter adjoins the town on the
south side. The chief mercantile houses are situated
on the bund facing the harbour, behind which are a
few streets running parallel with it, and there are a
number of private residences on the hillside. There
are English Protestant and Eoman Catholic churches,
two clubs, and a Masonic Lodge. The principal hotel
is the Nagasaki Hotel, opened in 1898, a three-storeyed
brick building situated on the Bund. There are
several smaller hotels, of which the two largest are the
BeUe Vue Hotel and Cliff House. The Nagasaki dock
was lengthened during 1894 to admit vessels of 500
feet in length on a draught of 26 feet. Attached to
the dock are extensive Engine Works, most completely
equipped and fitted. These works were originally
built by the Japanese Government, but they now
belong, as does the dock, to the Mitsu Bishi Company.
Waterworks have recently been completed. The
reservoir holds 90,000,000 gallons, and there are three
filter-beds and a service reservoir. The Kiushiu Eail-
way is now completed between Moji and Kumamoto,
with a branch line to Nagasaki The climate of
Nagasaki is mild and salubrious, and there are several
very popular health resorts in the neighbourhood, tlie
most famous being Mount Unzen.
After the opening of the port the trade for .several
FORMOSA 35
years steadily developed, but it subsequently declined,
owyxg to various causes, but chiefly perhaps on account
of its gradual attraction to Yokohama. During the
last ten years, however, there has been a steady
improvement in the foreign trade, which has more
than doubled itself in that period. The imports,
indeed, have increased tenfold in as many years ; and
with the opening up of railway communication with
the interior of Kiushiu, completed in 1898, a large
increase in the prosperity of the port is anticipated.
The chief articles of import are cotton and woollen
manufactures. The principal exports are coal, tea,
camphor, rice, vegetable wax, tobacco, and dried fish.
There are several very productive coal mines near
Nagasaki, of which the Takashima mine is the most
important.
The value of the import trade of Nagasaki during
the year 1898 was yen 19,698,646, against yen
13,601,234 in 1897, and that of the export trade yen
6,587,276, against yen 5,542,013 in 1897. Coal is the
staple article of export.
The population of Nagasaki in 1898 was 808,439.
The number of foreign residents, as given in the
Consular Keport for 1898, was 606, exclusive of Chinese,
of whom 40 were British, and 466 other Europeans
and Americans. A small foreign daily paper is
published, entitled the Nagasaki Press.
FORMOSA
This island, one of the largest in Asia, is situated
between latitude 22 and 26 deg. N., and longitude
120 and 122 deg. E., and is separated from the coast of
Fukien, China, by a channel about one hundred miles
in width. It is a prolongation of the Japanese and
Loochoo Archipelagoes, and in 1895 was incorporated
in the Japanese empire. Its name Formosa, signifying
"beautiful island," was conferred by the Portuguese,
36 JAPAN
the first Europeans to visit it, but it was called Taiwan
(Great Bay) by the Chinese, to whom it belonged from
1661 to 1894. It is said that the Japanese endeavoured
to form a colony in the island in 1620, but large
numbers of Chinese were settled there prior to that
date. The Dutch arrived in 1034, and founded several
settlements, and traces of their occupation are still to
be found in the island, but they were compelled in
1661 to retire by the Chinese pirate chief Koxinga,
who then assumed the sovereignty of western Formosa.
His grandson and successor, however, was induced,
twenty-two years later, to resign the crown to the
Emperor of China. By the treaty of Shimonoseki the
island was ceded to Japan as one of the terms of peace,
and on the 1st June, 1895, the formal surrender was
made, the ceremony taking place on board ship out-
side Kelung. The resident Chinese officials, however,
declared a republic, and offered resistance, and it was
not until the end of October that the opposing forces
were completely overcome, the last stand being made
in the south by Liu Yung-fu, the Black Flag General,
of Tonkin notoriety. Takow was bombarded and
captured on 15th October, and Anping was peacefully
occupied on the 21st of the same month, Liu Yung-fu
having taken refuge in flight.
Formosa is about 260 miles in length, and from 60
to 70 miles broad in the widest part. It is intersected
from north to south by a range of mountains, which
forms a kind of backbone to tlie island, the loftiest
peak of which, Mount Sylvia, is 11,300 feet liigL On
the western side of this range the slope is more gradual
than on the eastern side, and broken by fertile viUleys
which lose themselves in the large undulating plain
on which the Chinese arc settled. The \\hole of the
territory east of the dividing chain is peopled by an
aboriginal race who acknowledged no allegiance to the
Chinese Government and made frequent raids on the
outlying Chinese settlements, but they have proved
themselves friendly to the Japanese. They are a
FORMOSA 37
savage and warlike people, allied to the Malays and
Polynesians, and live principally by the chase. The
Chinese population of Formosa is estimated at about
2,500,000; the number of the aborigines it is, of course,
quite impossible to estimate. The productions of
Formosa are numerous, vegetation being everywhere
most luxuriant, testifying to the richness of the soil.
Sugar, tea, and camphor are largely cultivated and
exported. The fauna includes bears, monkeys, deei',
wild boar, badgers, martens, the scaly anteater, and
other smaller animals. Birds are not very numerous,
and snakes are not so common as might be expected
where vegetation is so abundant. It is believed that
the mineral wealth of the island is very considerable.
Gold has been found and is now worked in the beds
of the streams ; there are coal mines near Kelung and
sulphur springs also exist in the north of the island.
The interior of the island is, however, still practically
unexplored. One great drawback to the island is its
want of good harbours, which is more especially felt
on account of the strength of the monsoons in the
Formosa Channel. Those on the eastern side are few
and neither commodious nor accessible, while on the
west coast most of the harbours are little better than
open roadsteads. Taipeh is the capital of Formosa,
but Tainan-fu is the chief city in point of population.
The open ports are four in number — Takow and
Tainan-fu in the south, and Tamsui and Kelung in
the north. The latter was held for some months in
1884-5 by the French, under Admiral Courbet, but
was evacuated on the 21st June, 1885. The rivers of
Formosa are few, shallow, and winding, only navigable
to small flat-bottomed boats. The scenery is delightful,
and the climate is very pleasant in the winter, but hot
and malarious in the wet season. There is a railway
from Kelung to Tekcham, and an extension southwards
is projected.
38 JAPAN
TAMSUI AND KELUNG
The port of Tamsui lies in lat. 25 deg. 10 min. N.
and long. 101 deg. 26 min. E. on the north-western
side of the fertile island of Formosa. It is an un-
interesting place. The harbour, like all others in
Formosa, has a troublesome bar, which greatly retards
the growth of the port. Dredging would do much to
render it more accessible. The town, called HAbei,
is situated on the north side of the river, about two
miles from the bar. In October, 1884, the French
ships under Admiral Courbet bombarded Tamsui, but
were unable to take the place. The Japanese took
possession on the 7th June, 1895. Tea grows on the
hills in the locality, the export in 1898 amounting to
20,126,816 lbs. and in 1897 to 20,302,590 lbs. The
total value of the foreign trade of Tamsui and Kelung
and the attached special ports in 1898 was £2,181,589,
in 1897 £1,972,380 and in 1896 £1,592,413.
The port of Kelung lies to the north-east of Tamsui,
in latitude 25 deg. 6 min, N. and longitude 121 deg.
47 min. E. It is situated on the shores of a bay
between the capes of Foki and Peton, some twenty
miles apart, amidst bold and striking scenery, backed
by a range of mountains. It was once a Spanish
settlement, but was subsequently captured and held
by the Dutch until they in turn gave place to the
Chinese under Koxinga, a pirate chief who caused
himself to be proclaimed King of Formosa. Though
a mere village, it has long carried on a considerable
native trade with Amoy, Chin-chew, and Foochow.
Its staple product used to be coal, but the quantity
at present produced is all absorbed by local require-
ments. Sulphur also abounds in a valley in the
neighbourhood. Kelung was opened to foreign trade
at the same time as the other Formosan ports. The
limits of the port are defined to be within a straight
line drawn from Image Point to Bush Island. On
TAINAN-FU, TAKOW, AND ANPING 39
the 5th August, 1884, the port was bombarded by the
French under Admiral L^spes, when the forts above
the town were reduced to ruins and the place captured.
It was then garrisoned by the French, who held it
until after the treaty of peace had been signed at
Tientsin in June, 1885. The place was occupied by the
Japanese on the 3rd June, 1895. Harbour improve-
ments on a large scale are now in progress. A railway
connects Kelung with Taipeh, the capital, and will be
extended thence to Tainan-fu. Late in 1895 Luikong
(or Rokko), 117 miles south of Tamsui on the west
coast, was opened as a special port of import and ex-
port; and in March, 1896, Kiukong (or Kinko), 36
miles south of Tamsui, was opened in a similar manner
to trade for Japanese-owned vessels.
TAINAN-FU, TAKOW, AND ANPING
The city of Tainan-fu [until 1889 known as Taiwan],
situated in lat. 23 deg. 6 min. N. and long. 129 deg.
5 min. E., is the commercial capital of Formosa. It
is for an Eastern city moderately clean and well paved.
The walls are some five miles in circumference. The
shipping port of Tainan-fu is Anping, situated on the
coast about three miles to the eastward of the city and
connected with the suburbs by a creek. The port is an
open roadstead, vessels having to anchor a mile or so
from the beach. From the 1st November to the end
of May the anchorage is a perfectly safe one, but
during the S.W. monsoon a heavy swell sets in,
rendering it difficult, and at times impossible, for
vessels to load or discharge. Anping has of late risen
greatly in importance, the foreign firms making it their
headquarters instead of Takow, which port in former
years was considered of more significance. Tempered
by sea breezes, Anping during the summer months can
boast of a cool climate. From 1st October to the end
of April there is little or no rain, and, the l^emperaturQ
40 JAPAN
leaves nothing to be desired. Sugar is the principal
export of South Formosa ; the export in 1898 amounted
to 792,983 cwt., as against 770,510 cwt. in 1897. The
value of the total foreign trade of the port in 1898 was
£784,627 as compared with £612,284 in 1897.
Takow is a port twenty-four miles to the southward
of Anping. It takes little or no share in the import
trade, but is a principal centre for the sugar export
trade.
The last stand against the Japanese was made at
Tainan-fu, Takow, and Anping, by Liu Yung-fu, the
Black Flag General. Takow was bombarded on the
15th October and the resistance collapsed without any
serious fighting, and Tainan-fu and Anping were
occupied on the 21st October.
COREA
COEEA
CoEEA, or Chosen (the native name), is a peninsula
situated to the north of China, which hangs down
between that empire and Japan, separating the Sea of
Japan and the Yellow Sea, between the 34th and 43rd
parallels north. It is bounded on the north by Man-
churia, on the north-east by Siberia, on the east by the
Sea of Japan, on the west by the Yellow Sea, and on
the south by the Channel of Corea. It has a coast
line measuring 1740 miles, and with its outlying islands
is nearly as large as Great Britain. The name Corea is
derived from the Japanese Korai (Chinese Kaoli) ; and
the Portuguese, who were the first navigators in the
Yellow Sea, called it Koria. Chosen is translated into
"Morning Calm." The eastern half of the peninsula
is a sinuous range of mountains, of which Western
Corea is the slope. The chief rivers of importance are
naturally to be found on the western side, and most
of the harbours are situate on that coast. Corea is
divided into eight do or provinces, named Ping-an,
Whang-hai, Kiung-kei (which contains the capital),
Chung-chong, Chulla, Kiung-sang, Kang-wen, and
Ham-kiung. The climate is healthy and temperate,
bracing in the north and milder in the south, where it
is more exposed to summer breezes. The Han river at
Seoul is often frozen for two months in the year. The
fauna includes tigers, leopards, wild deer, wild hogs,
and in the south monkeys are to be found. A stunted
breed of horses exists, and immense numbers of oxen
44 COREA
are raised as food ; goats are rare, and sheep are only
imported from China for sacrificial purposes. The
pheasant, eagle, falcon, crane, and stork are common.
A great portion of the soil is fertile, and the mineral
wealth of the kingdom is believed to be considerable.
The history of Corea, like that of its neighbours, is lost
in the mists of obscurity, but according to native and
Chinese tradition a Chinese noble named Kishi, or
Ki-tsze, who migrated with his followers to Corea in
1122 B.C., was the founder of the Corean social order
and the first monarch. His descendants are said to
have ruled until the fourth century before the Christian
era. The present dynasty is descended from Ni Taijo,
a young soldier who was the architect of his own
fortunes, and who succeeded in deposing the Wang
dynasty. It was at this time, in the fourteenth century,
that Han-yang, known as Seoul, was selected as the
national capital. His Majesty King Li Fin is the
twenty-eighth sovereign of the present line. The king-
dom is governed, under the King and three Prime
Ministers, by six boards or departments — namely.
Office and Public Employ, Finance, Ceremonies, War,
Justice, and Public Works. The general method of
procedure is modelled on that of Peking. The State
revenue is derived from the land tax, and it is estimated
to amount to about £200,000.
For many centuries the Coreans successfully resisted
all efforts to induce them to hold intercourse with
foreigners. The King was formerly a vassal of the
Emperor of China, and the Emperor of Jap;in also
claimed his allegiance, but by the Treaty of Kokwa,
concluded with Japan in 1876, the independence of
the country was aclcnowledged, though China, which
assented to Corea's conclusion of this and other treaties
with foreign Powers as an independent kingdom, in-
consistently continued to claim suzerainty. Upon the
establishment of Japanese in the ports of Fusan and
Yuensan, the prejudice against foreign intercourse
gradually abated, and on the 22ud Mu}', 1882, a treaty
CORE A 45
of friendship and commerce was signed by the Corean
Government at Jenchuan with Commodore Shufeldt on
behalf of the United States. A Treaty with England
was signed by Sir Harry Parkes on the 26th November,
1883 ; in 1884 Treaties were also concluded with
Germany and Eussia, and later with France, Italy, and
Austria. The population of Corea, according to the
last Government census, was 10,518,937. The foreign
trade of Corea shows a steady growth, and in 1898 that
portion of it coming under the cognizance of the Foreign
Customs reached a value of $24,702,237 in 1898, as
against $23,511,350 in 1897, $12,842,509 in 1896, and
$7,986,840 six years ago, i.e. in 1893. The principal
articles of import are cotton manufactures, and of
export, rice, hides and bones, beans, and gold. The
export of gold is yearly increasing, in 1897 amounting
to £240,047, and no less a sum than £100,000 is said
to have been invested in one gold-mining undertaking
alone.
In 1894, owing to a rebellion in the Southern pro-
vinces, application was made to China for assistance,
and Chinese troops were sent to restore order. Japan
also sent troops and invited China to co-operate in
reforming the government of the country, but China
declined, and war resulted, Japan driving the Chinese
out of Corea and carrying the war into China itself.
Eegarding the financial position of Corea the British
Consul in his report for 1896 said: — "With careful
management and retrenchment of expenditure a financial
equilibrium has been established and maintained during
the past year, and there is a surplus in the Treasury
sufficient to cover the greater portion of the national
indebtedness. The principal items of revenue are the
land tax, the house tax, ginseng tax, and gold dues,
which altogether make up a budget of about $4,000,000.
The provincial income and expenditure is, however, left
to a certain extent to local management, and there can
be little doubt that with stricter supervision, and the
establishment of a regular system of accounts, the
46 COREA
revenue of the Central Government is capable of con-
siderable expansion." In his report for 1897 the Consul
said : " The financial position of the country continues
to be satisfactory, 2,000,000 yen of the 3,000,000 yen
borrowed from Japan have been repaid, and the year
closed with a sufficient balance in the Treasury to cover
the remainder of the national indebtedness." The report
for 1898 was, however, not so satisfactory, the Consul
remarking : " The finances of Corea are no longer in
the satisfactory condition they were a year or two ago.
The treasury is virtually empty, and the end of
each month brings with it the recurring difficulty
about the payment of the troops and the discharge of
other obligations. So far the Government have not
actually fallen into arrears, but they have been living
not on their income but on the surplus of past years,
and there is an unmistakable downward tendency in
their financial arrangements which augurs badly for the
future."
In 1896 work was commenced on a railway to con-
nect Chemulpo with Seoul, but financial difficulties
have been experienced by the Japanese syndicate who
agreed to take over the line from the original American
concessionnaire, and the work has made slow progress.
A contract has been let for another line, from Seoul to
Fusan, a distance of about 300 miles, but work has not
yet proceeded beyond the preliminary surveys.
SEOUL
The capital city of Han-yang, better known to
foreigners as Seoul (which is merely the native term
for capital), is situated almost in the centre of the
province of Kiung-kei, on the north side of and about
three miles from the river Han, about thirty-five miles
from its mouth. It lies in 37 (Jeg. 30 min. N. lat. and
127 deg. 4 min. E. long. Han-yang means " the fortress
on the Han." The city is enclosed by crenellated walls
SEOUL 47
of varying height, averaging about twenty feet, with
arched stone bridges, spanning the watercourses. It is
in the form of an irregular oblong, and stretches length-
wise in a valley that runs from north-east to south-west.
The houses are about eight or nine feet high, built of
stone or mud, and mostly roofed with tiles. Internally
they are clean, for the Coreans, like the Japanese, take
off their shoes before entering their houses. A long
main street, about 100 feet wide, running east and west,
divides the city into two nearly equal portions. In the
northern half are the walled inclosures containing the
King's Palace and the more important public buildings.
A street about 50 feet wide intersects the main street
at right angles, dividing the northern half of the city into
eastern and western quarters. At the point of inter-
section stands a pavilion called Chong-kak (the " Bell
Kiosk "), from a large bell about seven feet high
which is placed there. This spot is regarded as the
centre of the city ; and from it another street, as wide
as the main street, branches off to the south-west. The
four wide streets which thus radiate from the " Bell
Kiosk " are known as the four Chong-ro or " Bell roads."
Another conspicuous feature of this central part of the
city is the row of large warehouses two storeys high,
the lower portions of which are divided off into little
shops, opening into a small courtyard instead of facing
the street. The width of the main streets was formerly
much reduced by the construction in front of nearly
every house of a rude wooden shanty used for a work-
shop or for business purposes, which gave the streets a
poor and squalid appearance, but some of the principal
streets have now been cleared of these unsightly obstruc-
tions, and the British Consul in his report for 1896 says
the people are gradually being taught the benefits of
good roads and clean surroundings. A spacious market-
place has been erected in one of the busiest parts of the
city, and arrangements are being made for establishing
two or three others at suitable centres. An annual
appropriation of $50,000 has been made by the Finance
48 COREA
J")upartment for the maintenance and improvemeut of
the roads, and a similar sum was appropriated for ex-
penditure on drainage in 1897. The shops are small
and unattractive, and contain no articles de luxe or
curios. The population of the city is variously esti-
mated at from 150,000 to 240,000 persons; of&cial
returns give the number of houses as 30,000. An
electric railway running for three mUes along the main
streets of Seoul and thence three or four miles into the
country was opened in 1899. A railway to connect
Chemulpo with Seoul is in course of construction.
CHEMULPO,
POKT OF JENCHUAN, CALLED ALSO JIXSEX AND
INCHIUN
This port, known to the Japanese as Jinsen, is
situated in lat. 37 deg. 28 min. 30 sec. N. and long.
126 deg. 37 min. E., at the entrance to the Salee Eiver,
an embouchure of the Han-kang close to and immedi-
ately east of Eose Island, on the west coast of Corea,
in the metropolitan province of Eaung-kei. The British
Consul in his report for 1896 says : " Chemulpo, which
thirteen years ago was a collection of fifteen miserable
huts, is now a large and flourishing centre of trade,
with broad metalled roads, good substantial buildings,
and a foreign population of some 6000 or 7000, mostly
Japanese and Chinese. The Chinese and Japanese
settlements are fully occupied, and the price of land
in the general foreign settlement has risen to almost
fabulous rates." There is a Municipal Council, com-
posed of the Foreign Consuls, one Coroan official, and
three representatives of the landholders. The outer
anchorage is accessible to ships of all sizes, and the
inner one to coasting wssels and steamers ordinarily
employed in the local trade. The river is navigable for
vessels not drawing over ten feet up to Mapu ; but
WONSAN {GENS AN OR YUENSAN) 49
seeing that at certain seasons there are a few places
where the fall in the river is very considerable, owing
to the existence of sand-banks, it is desirable that river
steamers, intended to run regularly, should not draw
over six feet. An overland telegraph line from China
to this port and the city of Seoul was opened to traffic
in November, 1885. A railway to connect Chemulpo
with Seoul is in course of construction. The climate
is healthy and may be compared to that of Chefoo.
The foreign population was 5718 (including 4301
Japanese and 1344 Chinese) in 1898 ; the natives were
estimated at 7669.
The port was opened to Japanese trade on the 1st
January, 1883, and to foreign trade on the 16th June
of the same year. The value of the imports from
foreign countries in 1898 was $7,785,651, and that of
the exports to foreign countries $2,319,478, as com-
pared with $5,868,605 imports and $3,643,066 exports
in 1897. The total value of the trade of the port in
1898 was $10,853,851, as compared with $9,710,870 in
1897.
The sub-prefectural town of Jenchuan is situated ten
li distant from the port.
WONSAN (GENSAN OR YUENSAN)
This port, situated in Broughton Bay, on the north-
eastern coast of Corea, is in the southern corner of the
province of South Ham-kiung, about halfway between
Fusan and Vladivostock. It was opened to Japanese
trade on the 1st May, 1880, and to other nations in
November, 1883. It is called Gensan by the Japanese
and Yuensan by the Chinese. The native town has
grown considerably since the port was opened to trade
and contains now a population of fully 20,000 in-
habitants. The town is built along the southern shore
of the bay, and through it runs the main road which
leads from Seoul to the Tumen river. Markets are held
50 CO RE A
five times a month for the sale of agricultural produce
and foreign imports. The Custom House is situated in
the heart of the foreign settlements about a mile
distant from the native town. The Japanese have a
well-kept settlement containing about 200 houses, with
nearly 1500 inhabitants. The Chinese number 100,
and the European and American residents about 20.
The harbour is a good one, being spacious, easy of
access, well sheltered, with excellent holding ground,
and convenient depth of water. January is the coldest
month, and one corner of the harbour — that before the
native town — is sometimes frozen over, but the part
used by shipping is never covered with ice of such a
thickness as to interfere with navigation. The country
around Wonsan is under cultivation, and the soil is
very rich. Within a short distance of the port are
mines producing copper and other minerals, and gold
is found amongst the neighbouring mountains. The
cattle at the port, as nearly all over the country, are
very fine and plentiful, and can be bought at very low
rates ; they are used as beasts of burden and for agri-
cultural purposes. A telegraph line from hence to
Seoul was opened in July, 1891.
Trade is carried on by regular lines of steamers
running to Japan, Shanghai, and Vladivostock. The
imports from foreign countries in 1898 amounted to
$1,512,963 and the exports to $245,138. The value
of imports from native ports in same year was
$450,093 and the exports to native ports $763,106.
The net total value of the trade in 1898 was $2,971,297,
as compared with $3,071,72(i in 1897, $1,411,898 in
1896, and $2,816,306 in 1895. The exports consist
chiefly of hides, beans, gold-dust, dried fish, and skins.
The value of native gold exported to foreign countries
in 1898 was $972,702, not included in the exports of
merchandise. The imports consist chiefly of cotton and
silk manufactured goods, metals, and dyes.
FUSAN 51
FUSAN
Fusan, or Pusan, as it is also called by the Coreans,
is the chief port of Kiung-sang-do, the south-eastern,
province of Corea, and lies in lat. 35 deg. 6 min. 6 sec.
N. and long. 129 deg. 3 min. 2 sec. E. It was opened
to Japanese trade in 1876 and to Western nations in
1883, The native town consists of some 550 houses,
with a population of about 5000 inhabitants. The
Japanese settlement is situated a little distance from
the native town, opposite the island of Cholyongdo
(Deer Island). It is under the control of the Consul,
who is, however, assisted by an elective Municipal
Council. Order is maintained by a police force in a
uniform of European pattern. Water, conducted from
the neighbouring hills, is distributed through the
settlement by pipes and hydrants. The foreign resi-
dents numbered 6356 in 1898, of whom 6249 were
Japanese, 85 Chinese, and 22 Europeans. The Corean
town of Fusan is a walled city, situated at the head of
the harbour ; it contains the Eoyal granaries for storing
rice, a few wretched houses, and the residence of the
small military official in charge. The harbour is good
and capacious, with a sufficient depth of water to
accommodate the largest vessels. The climate is very
salubrious and the place is considered extremely
healthy. Sea bathing may be had in perfection, and
there is a nice hot spring near Tongnai. The district
city, Tong-nai Fu, which is distant about eight miles, is
the local centre of trade. It contains a population of
33,160. A branch of the Foreign Customs Service was
established in July, 1883. Eegular lines of steamers
connect the port with Japan, Shanghai, northern ports
of China, and Vladivostock. Fusan was connected
with Japan by a submarine telegraph cable in November,
1883. The imports from foreign countries in 1898
amounted to $2,447,000 against $2,706,000 in 1897
52 CORE A
and $1,937,040 in 1896, and the exports to foreign
countries to $2,812,000 against $4,700,000 in 1897 and
$2,604,000 in 1896.
MOKPO
Mokpo, which, like Chennampo, was opened to
foreign trade on the 1st October, 1897, in pursuance of
a resolution of the Council of State, is a seaport in the
province of ChuUa, and has an excellent harbour
capable of providing anchorage accommodation for
thirty or forty vessels of large tonnage. Chulla is a
great rice-growing district, and has the reputation of
being the wealthiest province in the country, and
Mokpo lies at the mouth of a river which drains nearly
the whole province. The Consular report for 1898
says : " Mokpo has undergone a great transformation
since it was opened, eighteen months ago. It then
consisted of a few Corean huts, surrounded by paddy
fields and mud flats. The foreign settlement, which
comprises about 225 areas of ground, has now nearly
all been bought up, and the mud flats are rapidly
being converted into a town, with well-laid-out streets,
occupied by about 1200 Japanese and a number of
substantial Chinese residents."
CHINNAMPO
This port was opened to foreign trade on the 1st
October, 1897, in pursuance of a resolution passed by
the Council of State. The port is situated on the north
bank of the Tatung inlet, about twenty mUes from its
mouth, in the extreme south-west of the proN-ince of
Ping-yang. It is some forty miles distant by water
from Ping-yang, the third city in the kingdom, with a
population of 40,000, and it is expected that it will
PINGYANG — KUNSAN S3
become a place of considerable commercial activity.
The province is rich in agricultural and mineral
wealth, the latter of which is now being developed by
foreign enterprise.
PINGYANG
Pingyang, the capital city of the province of the
same name, ranks in importance as the third city of
the empire. It has been opened as a trading mart,
where foreigners may reside, trade, and rent land and
houses, according to native rules, anywhere within the
limit to be marked off for that purpose. This limit
has not yet (1899) been decided upon. No custom-
house will be opened there, all goods to and from Ping-
yang paying duty for and from abroad at Chinnampo.
The foreigners residing at Pingyang comprise 17
American missionaries, one French missionary, about
150 Japanese, and 60 Chinese.
KUNSAN
Kunsan, one of the new ports opened to foreign trade
on the 1st May, 1899, is situated at the mouth of the
Yong Dang Eiver, which runs for many miles, forming
the boundary line between the two provinces of
Chulla-do and Chung-Chong-do, on the west coast of
Korea, and lies about halfway between Jenchuan and
Mokpo. The two provinces referred to are so noted
for their abundant supply of agricultural produce that
they are called the magazines of the kingdom. The
principal articles of export are : rice, wheat, beans,
different kinds of medicines, ox-hides, grasscloth, paper,
bamboo articles, fans both open and folding, screens
and mats, bicho de mar, dried awabi, with various
kinds of fish and seaweed.
54 CorSA
The port itself was well known as the export station
for the revenue rice, when the Government revenue
was paid in rice, and collected in this port for trans-
mission to the capital.
Among import goods, shirtings, lawns, cotton yam,
matches, kerosene oil, etc., had already found their
way to the port prior to its opening, for distribution to
different markets, and the importation of these goods
has since steadily increased in such a way as to
guarantee the future of Kunsan as a port of trade.
Population: 1200 Coreans, 150 Japanese, and a few
Chinese.
SONG CHIN
This port is situated on the north-eastern coast of
Corea, in the province of North Ham-kiung, about 120
miles from Wonsan. It was opened to foreign trade
on the 1st May, 1899. The native town is built close
to the beach, and to judge by the ruins of walls and
watch-towers was once a fortified place. The settle-
ment will occupy the native town and extend beyond
to the north. The native inhabitants number about
500. The next market-place is about 40 li distant and
up country, whilst the main road leading from Seoul
to the Tumen Eiver is at a distance of about 10 li.
The Custom House is situated near the settlement, on
the neck of the small peninsula forming one side of
the Song Chin bay. Of foreigners there are some 40
Japanese living as yet in Corean houses; they are
mostly small shopkeepers and coolies. The harbour is
a bad one, indeed it is little more than an open road-
stead anchorage ; from N.E. to S.E. it is quite exposed,
and even with a moderate breeze from tliose quarters
communication between ship and shore may have to be
suspended. The anchorage is not spacious though
very easy of access, and vessels drawing 10 feet or so
can lie within a quarter of a mile from the shore. Fogs
SONG CHIN 55
prevail for the greater part of the year, and the tem-
perature is moderate at all seasons. The country
around Song Chin is well under cultivation, principally
for beans. Within reasonable distances, it is said, gold,
copper, and coal may be found, also a very fine white
granite. Hot springs, said to be very efficacious for a
number of ailments, are at a distance of some 30 li
from the settlement. Cattle are very fine and plentiful,
and can be bought at low rates. A number of Japanese
fishing boats are employed along the coast reaping a
seemingly good harvest in bicho de mar. Trade is
carried on by small coasting steamers, principally with
the port of Wonsan, The exports chiefly consist of
beans, cowhides, and bicho de mar, whilst cotton goods,
kerosene oil, and matches form the principal items of
imports.
CHINA
CHINA
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
KuANG Sij, Emperor of China, is the son of Prince
Ch'un, the seventh son of the Emperor Tao Kuang.
He succeeded his cousin, the late Emperor Tung Chi,
who died without issue on the 12th January, 1875, from
small-pox.
The proclamation announcing the accession of the
present sovereign was as follows : — " Whereas His
Majesty the Emperor has ascended upon the Dragon to
be a guest on high, without offspring born to his
inheritance, no course has been open but that of
causing Tsai Tien, son of the Prince of Ch'un, to
become adopted as the son of the Emperor Weng
Tsung Hien (Hien Fung), and to enter upon the
inheritance of the great dynastic line as Emperor by
succession. Therefore, let Tsai Tien, son of Yih Huan,
the Prince of Ch'un, become adopted as the son of the
Emperor Wen Tsung Hien, and enter upon the inheri-
tance of the great dynastic line as Emperor by succes-
sion." The present sovereign is the ninth Emperor
of China of the Manchu dynasty of Ta-tsing (Sublime
Purity), which succeeded the native dynasty of Ming
in the year 1644. There exists no law of hereditary
succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign
to appoint his successor from among the members of
his family. The late Emperor, dying suddenly, in the
eighteenth year of his age, did not designate a successor,
and it was in consequence of palace intrigue, directed
60 CHINA
by the Empress Dowager, in concert with Prince Ch'un,
that the infant son of the latter was declared Emperor.
The Emperor Kuang Sii was born in 1871, assumed
the reins of government in February, 1887, was
married on the 26th February, 1889, to Yeh-ho-na-la,
niece of the Empress Dowager, and his enthronement
took place on the 4th March following. On the 2l8t
September, 1898, a Palace revolution took place, and
the Empress Dowager again assumed the regency,
nominally on the ground of the Emperor's ill-health,
and she has since ruled in the Emperor's name.
Government and Kevenue.
The fundamental laws of the empire are laid down
in the Ta-tsing Huei-tien, or Collected Eegulations of
the Great Pure Dynasty, which prescribe the govern-
ment of the State as based upon the government of the
family. The Emperor is spiritual as well as temporal
sovereign, and, as high priest of the Empire, can alone,
with his immediate representatives and ministers,
perform the great religious ceremonies. No ecclesias-
tical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor
any priesthood attached to the Confucian or State
religion.
The administration of the empire is under the
supreme direction of the Interior Council Chamber,
comprising four members, two of Manchu and two of
Chinese origin, besides two assistants from the Han-lin,
or Great College, who have to see that nothing is done
contrary to the civil and religious laws of the empire,
contained in the Ta-tsing Huei-tien and in the sacred
books of Confucius. These members are denominated
Ta Hsio-sz, or Ministers of State. Under their orders
are the Li Pu or seven boards of government, each of
wliich is presided over by a Miinchu and Chinese.
They are:— (1) The Li Pu ;^ ^ Board of Civil
Ajipointnu'iit, which takes cognizance of tlie conduct
aiid administration of all civil officers; (2) The Hu Pu
CHINA 6 1
^ % Board of Eevenue, regulating all financial affairs ;
(3) The Li Pu li $U Board of Eites and Ceremonies,
which enforces the laws and customs to be observed by
the people ; (4) The Ping Pu ^S ^ or Military Board,
superintending the administration of the army ; (5) The
Kung Pu X pi5 or Board of Public Works ; (6) The
Board of Punishments ffj % and (7) The Board of
Admiralty. To these must be added the Tsung-li
Yamen, iH ^ ® f^ or Board of Foreign Affairs.
Independent of the Government, and theoretically above
the central administration, is the Tu-cha Yuan, or
Board of Public Censors. It consists of from 40 to 50
members, under two presidents, the one of Manchu and
the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient custom of
the empire, all the members of this board are privileged
to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One
censor must be present at the meeting of each of the
six Government boards.
The amount of the public revenue of China is not
known, and estimates concerning it vary greatly. The
Imperial Maritime Customs receipts form the only item
upon which exact figures are obtainable, and these for
the year 1898 amounted to Tls. 22,503,397. Mr. E. H.
Parker, formerly of the British Consular Service, in
1896 published the following estimate of the receipts
from the other principal sources: — Land tax Tls.
20,000,000, Salt Tls. 10,000,000, Lekin Tls. 15,000,000,
Native Customs Tls. 3,000,000, Miscellaneous Tls.
3,000,000. In addition the grain tribute may also be
estimated at Tls. 3,000,000, making a total estimated
revenue of Tls. 77,000,000. The amounts given above
are those supposed to be accounted for to the Govern-
ment, but very much larger amounts are raised from
the people and absorbed by the officials in the way of
peculation. With the significant exception of the
Maritime Customs, which is under foreign control, no
item of revenue shows any elasticity. The land tax,
salt revenue, Lekin Native Customs, are all about the
same figures as they were ten years ago, although it is
62 CHINA
a matter of common notoriety that these sources of
revenue have increased indefinitely.
China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874, when
a loan of £627,675, bearing 8 per cent, interest, was
contracted through the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank,
under Imperial authority, and secured by the Customs'
revenue. Afterwards a number of other loans, of com-
paratively moderate amount, were contracted, mostly
through the agency of the Hongkong and Shanghai
Bank, and several of them have been paid off. Up to
1894 the total foreign debt of China was inconsiderable,
but since then extensive borrowings have had to be
made to meet the expenses of the war with Japan and
the indemnity, which was Tls. 200,000,000 (at exchange
of 3s. Z\d), with a further Tls. 20,000,000 for the retro-
cession of the Liaotung Peninsula. The last instalment
was paid in 1898, and the total indebtedness of the
country is now £55,755,000, the principal loans being
the Eussian of 1895, the Anglo-German of 1896,
and the Anglo-German of 1898, each of £16,000,000.
Eecently several minor loans, amounting in all to less
than £4,000,000, have been contracted through the
agency of the foreign banks for the purposes of rail-
way construction. It is but fair to say that these
loans have been devoted to their purpose, and will
automatically redeem themselves if efficient manage-
ment of the lines be assured. In some cases the lines
have been hypothecated to the banks as security, and
these institutions have nominated a foreign accountant.
Area and Population.
China proper, extending over 1,336,841 English
square miles, is divided into eighteen provinces, the
area and population of which are given below, the
figures with an * being from Chinese official data for
1882, those with a \ from the data of 1879, and Fohkien
being estimated on the basis of the census of 1844 : —
CHINA 63
Province. Provincial capital, .t"'^"??"'' ^'"?'?f''^ ^p?r"q^°e
' .square miles. population, mile
Chihlif ... Peking ... 58,949 17,937,000 304
Shantung*... Tainan ... 53,762 36,247,835 557
Shansl* ... Taiyuen ... 56,268 12,211,453 221
Honan* ... Kaifung ... 66,913 22,115,827 340
KiangBU* ... Nanking ...\ „„ „ /20,905,171 470
Anhwei* ... Ngankin .../ ''^'"^^ \20,596,288 425
Kiangsit ... Nanchang ... 72,176 24,534,118 340
Chekiang*... Hangohow ... 39,150 11,588,692 296
Fohkien ... Foochow ... 38,500 22,190,556 574
Hupeh* ... Wuchang ...\ !..„„ f22,190,556 473
Hunan' ... Changchau.../ ^■**'"" \21,002,604 282
Shensit ... Sigan ••■iiqoo'in / 8,432,193 1'26
Kansuh ... Lanchow .../ ^^'■■'^'^^ \ 9,285,377 74
Szechuen*... Chingtu ... 166,800 67,712,897 400
Kwangtung* Canton ... 79,456 29,706,249 377
Kwangait ... Kwelin ... 78,250 5,151,327 65
Kweichaut Kweiyang ... 64,554 7,669,181 118
Yunnan t ... Yunnan ... 107,969 11,721,576 108
1,312,328 383,253,029 292
It is to be noted that the Chinese census, following
all Oriental methods of calculation, is not to be trusted.
There is no subject on which foreign and native statis-
ticians are more contentious than that of the Chinese
population. Experts vary in their estimates between
250,000,000 and 440,000,000.
The total number of foreigners in China in 1898 was
13,421, of whom 5148 were subjects of Great Britain,
2056 of the United States, 920 of France, 1043 of
Germany, 200 of Sweden and Norway, 141 of Italy,
395 of Spain, 162 of Denmark, 1694 of Japan, and
1082 Portuguese, almost entirely natives of Macao,
all other nationalities being represented by very few
members. Of 773 mercantile firms doing business at
the treaty ports, 398 were British, 107 German, 43
American, and 37 French.
The principal dependencies of China are Mongolia,
with an area of 1,288,035 square miles, and some
2,000,000 people ; and Manchuria, with an area of
362,313 square miles, and an estimated population of
15,000,000. The latter is being steadily and rapidly
colonised by Chinese, who greatly outnumber the
64 CHINA
Manchiis in their own land, Thibet, which is also
practically a dependency of China, has an area of
643,734 square miles and a population of 6,000,000
souls. It is ruled by the Dalai Lama, but subject to
the Government of Peking, who maintain a Resident
at Lhassa.
Army and Navy.
The standing military forc& of China consists of two
great divisions, the first formed by the more immediate
subjects of the ruling dynasty, the Manchus, and the
second by the Chinese and other subject races. The
first, the main force upon which the Imperial Govern-
ment can rely, form the so-called troops of the Eight
Banners, and garrison all the great cities, but so as to
be separated by walls and forts from the population.
According to the latest reports, the Imperial army
comprises a total of 850,000 men, including 678
companies of Tartar troops, 211 companies of Mongols,
and native Chinese infantry, a kind of militia, number-
ing 120,000 men; but these figures, derived from Native
sources, are altogether untrustworthy. In organisation,
equipment, personnel, and commissariat the Army is
utterly inefilcient, and with the exception of a few
brigades of foreign-drilled troops, is little better than
rabble, as far as concerns opposition to European,
Indian, or Japanese troops. The native soldiers do
not as a rule live in barracks, but in their own houses,
mostly pursuing some civil occupation.
The Chinese navy consisted, prior to the Franco-
Chinese war of 1884, mainly of small gunboats buUt at
the Mamoi Arsenal, Foochow, and at Shanghai, on the
foreign model, but was afterwards greatly strengthened.
Five ships were lost, however, in the battle of the Yalu,
when the Japanese inflicted a severe defeat upon the
Chinese, and the remainder of the fleet was captured
or destroyed at the taking of Weiiaiwei in February,
1895. Three cruisers of 2950 tons displacement were
secured in 1895 from the Vulcan Works at Stetten,
CHINA 65
and two very fine Elswick sloops of the same size
were added in 1899. These, with two corvettes and
two training vessels, supplemented by four Elbau
"destroyers," comprise the Pei Yang Squadron or
Northern Fleet. These vessels might be of real value
for conveying troopships, shelling rebellious towns, etc.,
but as the Chinese have no naval base and no docking
facilities in Northern waters, and as the ships are ill-
found and with indifferent personnel, they would be of
little use against a resolute foreign enemy.
Teade and Industry.
The ports open to trade are : — Newchwang, Tientsin,
Chefoo, Shanghai, Soochow, Chinkiang, Nanking,
Wuhu, Kewkiang, Hankow, Yochow, Shasi, Ichang,
Chungking, Hangchow, Ningpo, Wenchow, Santu,
Foochow, Amoy, Swatow, Canton, Samshui, Wuchow,
Nanning, Kiungchow, and Pakhoi. Lungchow, Ment-
szu, Szemao, and Hokeow, on the frontiers of Tonkin
and Burmah, are stations under the cognizance of the
Foreign Customs. The import trade, exclusive of the
Colony of Hongkong, centres chiefly at Shanghai,
Canton, and Tientsin, while the bulk of the exports
pass through the ports of Shanghai, Hankow, Foochow,
and Canton. The annual value of the trade of China
coming under the supervision of the Imperial Maritime
Customs was as follows : —
Net imports Net exports to Total of ^^' imports
from foreign foreign foreign trade. of native
countrjes. countries. *" a " ■ goods.
Hk. Tls. Hit. Tls. Hk. Tie. Hk. Tls.
1885 ... 88,200,018 65,005,711 153,205,729 57,117,407
1890 ... 127,093,481 87,144,480 214,237,961 74,017,519
1891 ... 134,003,863 100,947,849 234,951,712 80,085,179
1892 ... 135,101,198 102,583,525 237,684,723 76,717,666
1893 ... 151,362,819 116,632,311 267,995,130 80,079,118
1894 ... 162,102,911 128,104,522 290,207,433 80,377,259
1895 ... 171,696,715 143,293,211 314,989,926 83,405,382
1896 ... 202,589,994 131,081,421 333,671,415 86,488,288
1897 ... 202,828,625 163,501,358 366,329,983 91,443,935
1898 ... 209,579,334 159,037,149 368,616,483 101,680,963
1898 @
Ex.l-51,Mex.$316,464,794 $240,146,095 $.556,610,889 $153,538,254
Ex. 2s. lO^d. £30,236,185 £22,944,422 £53,180,607 £14,669,597
F
66
CHINA
The following was the net value of commodities
imported direct from and exported direct to foreign
countries in 1898. These figures do not include the
trade carried on with neighbouring countries in Chinese
junks, which does not come within the control of the
Foreign Customs : —
Imports.
Exports.
ToUl.
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tl>.
Hk. Tls.
Hongkong
97,214,017
62,083,512
159,297,529
Great Britain
34,962,474
10,715,952
45,678,426
Japan (including Formosa)
27,376,063
16,092,778
43,468,841
Continent of Europe, except
BuBsia
9,397,792
25,929,114
35,326,906
India
19,135,546
1,324,125
20,459,671
United States of America...
17,163,312
11,986,771
29,150,083
Russia (sea and overland)
1,754,088
17,798,207
19,552,295
Straits and other British
Colonies
4,805,634
3,719,470
8,525,104
Macao
3,347,717
5,381,959
8,729,676
Other foreign countries ...
3,588,704
4,005,261
7,593,965
218,745,347 159,037,149 377,782,496
Imports to the amount of Hk. Tls. 9,166,013 were
re-exported to foreign countries ; namely, to America
Tls. 3,015,388, to Corea Tls. 1,605,458, to Eussian
Manchuria Tls. 1,382,506, to Japan (including For-
mosa), Tls. 1,213,359, to Hongkong Tls. 1,287,298, to
other countries Tls. 662,004.
The following were the values of imports from foreign
countries in 1898, exclusive of re-exports to foreign
countries : —
Hk. Tls.
Hk. TU.
Cotton goods
77,618,824
Cotton, raw...
... 2,839,730
Opium
29,255,903
Matches
... 2,597,072
Kerosene oil
11,914,699
Ginseng
... 2,545,210
Rice
10,448,838
B6che de mer
and
Metals
9,787,077
seaweed ...
... 2,071,609
Sugar
9,018,967
Flour
... 1,774,712
Coal
5,280,620
Machinery ...
... 1,758,615
Woollen goods
8,190,169
Sundries ...
... 8,631,538
Fish and fishery pro-
ducts
3,161,900
Total ...
... 209,579,834
The foreign goods re-exported to foreign countries,
exclusive of those to Corea, consisted of Formosan
Tea Tls. 3,757,362, Cotton Goods Tls. 2,762,525, Coal
CHINA
67
Tls. 406,430, Metals Tls. 259,938, Sugar Tls. 360,118,
Sundries Tls. 1,619,640.
The exports to foreign countries, exclusive of re-
export of foreign goods, were : —
Hk. Tls.
Ilk. Tls.
Silk
45,412,818
Clothing, boots, and
Tea
28,879,482
shoes
1,982,672
Silk piece goods ..
10,691,101
Paper
1,741,707
Beans and beancake
7,828,885
Provisions and vege-
Tobacco
3,839,240
tables
1,590,204
Hides and horns ..
3.836,413
China and earthen-
Mats and mattings
3,683,094
ware
1,504,307
Cotton, raw
3,151,161
Cattle
1,432,382
Strawbraid
3,131,791
Sundries
32,350,870
Fur skins and rugs
3,073,332
Vegetable oil
. 2,461,799
Total
159,037,149
Sugar
2,445,891
Goods to the value of Tls. 36,404,858 were conveyed
to, and to the value of Tls. 5,751,434 were brought
from, the interior under transit passes.
The total carrying trade foreign and coastwise was
divided amongst the different flags as under (the
Eussian including tea carried overland via Kiakhta) : — ■
Entries and
Tonnage.
Values.
Percentaees.
clearances.
Tls.
Tonnage.
Duties.
British
22,609
21,265,966
508,241,936
6212
56-54
German
1,831
1,685,098
52,185,211
4-92
915
Japanese
2,262
1,569,134
30,073,053
4-58
3-35
Swedish and
Norwegian
498
440,554
11,619,821
1'29
116
French
577
420,078
19,307,270
1-23
2-49
American
743
239,152
4,327,530
0-70
0-87
Bussian
118
178,768
6,142,666
0-52
1-63
Danish
268
144,481
2,735,275
0-42
0-50
Austrian
16
44,936
1,070,232
0-13
0-22
Dutch
18
16,492
635,212
0-05
008
Other countries
174
41,349
1,138,631
012
0-38
Chinese
23,547
8,187,572
334,422,970
23-92
23-63
52,661 34,233,580 971,899,807 100-00 100-00
The vessels entered and cleared in 1898 were made
up of 43,164 Steamers of 32,896,014 tons, and 9497
Sailing Vessels of 1,337,566 tons.
The gross coast trade in vessels of foreign build
amounted to the sum of Tls. 273,192,029 outward, and
68 CHINA
Tls. 311,759,269 inward, the net native imports (that
is, goods not re-exported) at the Treaty Ports being
Tls. 101,680,963, and the exports to Treaty Ports
Tls. 71,296,364.
The Imperial Maritime Customs revenue for the
same year amounted to Haikwan Taels 22,503,396,
and was derived from —
Imports Exports Coast Trade Opinm Oplam Tonnage Transit
duty. duty. duty, duty. lekln. dues. dues.
Foreign 4,943,268 6,054,002 6)7,369 1,226,859 3,266,990 651,398
Native f86,640 2,249,809 507,432 744,236 716,192 61,463
Total 6,729,908 8,303,811 1,184,801 1,971,095 3,983,182 612,861 117,733
Although China is traversed in aU directions by
roads, they are usually mere tracks, or at best foot-
paths, along which the transport of goods is a tedious
and diflicult undertaking. It was owing to the im-
perfect means of communication that such a fearful
mortality attended the last famines in Shansi, Honan,
and Shantung. The enormous mineral wealth of Shan-
si is practically non-existent for the same reason, and
there is every reason to fear that the present year
(1900) will see in this province a repetition of the
famine horrors of the Eighties. A vast internal trade
is, however, carried on over the roads, and by means
of numerous canals and navigable rivers. The most
populous part of China is singularly well adapted for
the construction of a network of railways, and a first
attempt to introduce them into the country was made
in 1876, when a line from Shanghai to Woosung, ten
miles in length, was constructed by an English company.
The little railway was subsequently purchased by the
Chinese Government and closed by them on the 21st
October, 1877. Since that time the principle of rail-
ways has been fully accepted, and several important
lines are projected while some arc already in operation.
A tramway a few miles in length, begun in 1881 to
carry coal from the Kaiping coal mines, near Tongshan,
to the canal bank, has been extended to Tientsin and
Taku on the one hand, and to Kinchow, in the N,W.
CHINA 69
comer of the Gulf of Liao-tung, on the other. This
road is now being rapidly continued from Kinchow to
Newchwang ; the year 1900 will probably see the two
Northern Treaty Ports connected by rail. A line from
Peking to Tientsin was opened in 1897, the Peking
terminus being at Machiapu, a point two miles from
the Tartar city, whence a short electric line connects
it with one of the principal gates ; the traffic developed
so rapidly that in 1898-9 the line had to be doubled.
From Lukouchiao (or Marco Polo's Bridge) a line of
about eighty miles in length has been constructed
southward to Paotingfu, the capital of the province
of Chihli; this line is now in running order, and in
October, 1899, was handed over by the British con-
structors to the Belgian Syndicate as an integral factor
in the great trans-continental road from Peking to Han-
kow. A line from Shanghai to Woosung, some fourteen
miles in length, was opened in 1898, twenty-one years
after the first line between the same termini was torn
up. The total length of the railways already in opera-
tion is about 450 miles. A contract has been let to a
Belgian Syndicate for the construction of a trunk-line
of about 650 miles in length from Hankow to Paotingfu,
where it joins the existing Paotingfu and Lukoachiao
line, thus giving through communication with Peking.
Work on this line has been commenced at both ends,
and large numbers of Belgian engineers arrived in
1899. The bridging of the Yellow Eiver and the cross-
ing of the Puh Niw Mountains in Honan, may offer
some engineering difficulties. The American-China
Development Company has obtained a concession for
the construction of a line from Wuchang, on the
southern bank of the Yangtsze immediately opposite
to Hankow, to Canton. The British-Chinese Corpora-
tion has become associated with the American- China
Development Company in this project, and the same
corporation has obtained a concession for a line con-
necting Canton with Kowloon (Hongkong). German
concessionnaires have secured the right to construct
70 CHINA
two lines from the German Settlement at Kiaochau to
Chinanfu and Ichou in the interior of the Shantung
province, and an Anglo-German Syndicate has been
authorised to make a line from Tientsin to Chinkiang,
the Germans having charge of the northern portion of
the undertaking and the British of the southern. A
British syndicate has also secured the right to construct
a line from Shanghai via Soochow to Nanking and
north-westward to join the Lu-Han line (as the Han-
kow-Peking line is called), and also a line from Soochow
md Hangchow to Ningpo. A line from Canton to
Chengtu, the provincial capital of Szechuen, has also
been mentioned. Surveys have been conducted with a
view of finding a practicable route for a railway to
connect Burmah with the Yangtsze region in Szechuen,
and it is anticipated that a definite project for such
a line will shortly be launched. The French have
secured a concession for a line from Laokay, near the
Tonkin frontier, to Yunnan, and tenders for the execu-
tion of the work have been called for. The French
have also secured concessions for lines from Lungchow
to Nanning and from Nanning to Pakhoi, but it is
doubtful whether these will be carried out, as their
tendency would be to divert trade from the French
colony to the West Eiver route. The Anglo-Italian
Syndicate has been authorised to work coal and iron
mines in the province of Honan and to build railways
connecting the mines with navigable rivers; under
this contract a line from Taiyuen to Singanfu and a
branch to Siangyang are projected. In Manchuria
Eussia is making a railway to connect Port Arthur
and Tailienwan with the Trans-Siberian line, and
branches in various directions are projected ; and un-
successful attempts were made in 1899 to induce the
Chinese Authorities to introduce the Russian gauge on
their northern lines from the Manchurian border to
Peking. The paper inception of a new line from
Peking to Kiatcha and thence to Irkutaku via Kalgan
has also been made. For the conveyance of the
PEKING 7 1
material required in the carrying out of this under-
taking a line is under construction from Newchwang,
the port at which the material conveyed by sea will
be landed. A telegraph line between Tientsin and
Shanghai was opened in December, 1882, and lines now
connect all the important cities of the empire.
PEKING
The present capital of China was formerly the northern
capital only, as its name denotes, but it has long been
really the metropolis of the Central Kingdom. Peking
is situated on a sandy plain 13 miles S.W. of the Pei-ho
river, and about 110 miles from its mouth, in latitude
39 deg. 54 min. N. and longitude 116 deg. 27 min. E., or
nearly on the parallel of Naples. A canal connects the
city with the Pei-ho. Peking is ill-adapted by situation
to be the capital of a vast Empire, nor is it in a position
to become a great manufacturing or industrial centre.
The products of all parts of China naturally find their
way to the seat of Government, but it gives little save
bullion in return.
From Dr. Dennys's description of Peking we quote
the following brief historical sketch : — " The city
formerly existing on the site of the southern portion
of Peking was the capital of the Kingdom of Yan.
About 222 B.C., this kingdom was overthrown by the
CMn dynasty and the seat of Government was removed
elsewhere. Taken from the Chins by the Khaitans
about A.D. 936, it was some two years afterwards made
the southern capital of that people. The Kin dynasty
subduing the Khaitans, in their turn took possession of
the capital, calling it the ' Western Eesidence.' About
A.D. 1151, the fourth sovereign of the Kins transferred
the court thither, and named it the Central Eesidence.
In 1215 it was captured by Genghis Khan. In 1264
Kublai Khan fixed his residence there, giving it the
title of Chung-tu or Central Eesidence, the people at
72 CHINA
large generally calling it Shun t'ien-fu. In a.d. 1267,
the city was transferred 3 li (one mile) to the north of
its then site, and it was then called Ta-tu — ' the Great
Eesidence.' The old portion became what is now known
as the ' Chinese city,' and the terms ' Northern ' and
' Southern ' city, or more commonly nei-chengi (within
the wall), and wai-oheng (without the wall), came into
use. The native Emperors who succeeded the Mongol
dynasty did not, however, continue to make Peking the
seat of Government. The court was shortly afterwards
removed to Nanking, which was considered the chief
city of the Empire until, in 1421, Yung Lo, the third
Emperor of the Ming dynasty, again held his court at
Peking, since which date it has remained the capital of
China."
The present city of Peking is divided into two
portions, the Northern or Tartar city, and the Southern
or Chinese. The former is being gradually encroached
upon by the Chinese, and the purely Manchu section
of the capital will soon be very limited. The southern
city is almost exclusively occupied by Chinese. The
general shape of Peking may be roughly represented by
a square placed upon an oblong, the former standing
for the Tartar and the latter for the Chinese city. The
whole of the capital is, of course, walled. The walls of
the Tartar city are the strongest. They average 50 feet
in height and 40 feet in width, and are buttressed at
intervals of about 60 yards. The parapets are loop-
holed and crenelated. They are faced on both sides
with brick, the space between being filled with earth
and concrete. Each of the gateways is surmounted by
a three-storied pagoda. The walls of the Chinese city
are about 30 feet in height, 25 feet thick at the base,
and 15 feet wide on the terre plein. The total circum-
ference of the walls round the two cities slightly exceeds
20 miles.
The Tartar city consists (Dr. Williams tells us) of
three enclosures, one within the other, each surrounded
by its own wall. The innermost, called Kin-ching or
PEKING 73
Prohibited City, contains the Imperical Palace and its
surrounding buildings ; the second is occupied by the
several offices appertaining to the Government and by
private residences of officials ; while the outer consists
of dwelling-houses, with shops in the chief avenues.
The Chinese city is the business portion of Peking, but
it presents few features of interest to sightseers, while
the enclosure known as the Prohibited City is, as its
title denotes, forbidden to all foreign visitors. The
numerous temples, the walls, the Imperial Observatory,
the Foreign Legations, and the curio shops are the
chief attractions to the tourist. The streets of the
Chinese metropolis are kept in a most disgraceful
condition. In the dry season the pedestrian sinks deep
in noxious dust, and in wet weather he is liable to be
drowned in the torrents that rush along the thorough-
fares, where the constant traffic has worn away the
soU. 1899 saw the innovation of Legation Street being
cleansed, levelled, and macadamised — the greatest urban
improvement in three centuries. Experts say that the
money lost in time, wear and tear of men, mules and
carts every year is greater than the prime cost of
macadamising all the main thoroughfares. The con-
gestion of the traffic and the personal discomfort of
cart-transit are inconceivable to people who have not
experienced them. There is an air of decay about
Peking which extends even to the finest of the temples,
and which powerfully impresses every visitor as sym-
bolic of the decadence of Empire. The population of
Peking is not accurately known, but according to a
Chinese estimate, which is probably much in excess,
it is 1,300,000, of whom 900,000 reside in the Tartar
and 400,000 in the Chinese city. There is no direct
foreign trade with Peking, and the small foreign popu-
lation is made up of the members of the various
Legations, the Maritime Customs establishments, the
professors of the College of Peking, and the missionary
body. In August, 1884, the city was brought into
direct telegraphic communication with the rest of the
74 CHINA
world by an overland line to Tientsin via Tungchow.
The year 1899 witnessed two other innovations, which
would have been regarded as impossible ten years ago,
viz. the erection of large two-storied buildings on
prominent sites for the Austrian Legation and the
Hongkong and Shanghai Bank. These are breaks
with immemorial tradition that the feng-shm must
resent elevation in houses other than those of the
immortal gods and the son of heaven.* A railway
line to Tientsin was opened in 1897, but prejudice
still keeps the terminus outside of the walls, and the
gates are ruthlessly shut every night at sunset without
reference to the convenience of travellers by rail or
otherwise.
TIENTSIN
Tientsin is situated at the junction of the Yun Ho or
Hwae Eiver, better known as the Grand Canal, with
the Pei-ho in lat. 39 deg. 4 min. N., long. 117 deg.
3 mins. 56 sees. E. It is distant from Peking by road
about 80 miles, but the bulk of the enormous traffic
between the two cities is by the river Pei-ho as far as
Tungchow (13 miles from Peking), and thence by carts
and wheelbarrows over the once magnificent but now
dilapidated stone causeway. The traffic is now, how-
ever, being rapidly diverted to the railway, which was
opened in 1897, and the line doubled in November,
1898. Tientsin was formerly a place of no importance,
and till recently had few historic associations; till
the end of the Ming dynasty (a.d. 1644) it was only
a second-rate military station, but at the northern
terminus of the Grand Canal it gradually assumed
commercial importance, and by the end of the seven-
teenth century had become a great distributing centre.
The navigability of the Pei-ho for sea-going junks
ceases at Tientsin, and tliis made it the emporium
* On the 15th March, 1900, the Hongkoiig and Shanghai Bank
building was iolally dentroyed by fire; tltecaiue wat purely accidental,
and not in any way oonneated toith/tng'thui.
TIENTSIN 75
for the very large quantities of tribute rice yearly
sent up to the capital, after the Grand Canal shoaled
up so as to be unfit for carriage in bulk. The trade
of the city is now imperilled by the silting up of the
Pei-ho. A river improvement scheme of some magni-
tude was inaugurated in 1898 under Mr. A. de Linde,
and is now rapidly approaching completion. It is,
however, generally believed that no lasting success will
attend the remedial measures until steps are taken to
deal with Taku Bar by permanent dredging; mean-
while it is hoped that by closing the canals and creeks
which take off most of the flood tide, the navigation of
the river will be restored to its normal state before the
year 1900.
The expeditions of the allies in 1858-61 greatly
enhanced the importance of the city, as it then proved
to be the military key of the capital and an excellent
base. It was here on June 26th, 1858, that Lord Elgin
signed the treaty which was to conclude the war, but
which unhappily led to its prolongation. The temple
in which the treaty was signed is about a mile distant
from the west gate, and is now enclosed in a small
arsenal (Hai Kwan Tze) and surrounded by factories
for the manufacture of small-arm ammunition. It is
worth a visit if only to see the large bell which, as
usual, has an interesting tradition associated with it.
During the long satrapy of Li Hung-chang the trade
and importance of the city developed exceedingly. Li,
by the vigour of his rule, soon quelled the rowdyism
for which the Tientsinese were notorious throughout
the empire, and as he made the city his chief residence
and the centre of his many experiments in military and
naval education, it came to be regarded as the focus of
the new learning and national reform. The foreign
affairs of China were practically directed from Tientsin
during the two decades 1874-94.
The city will ever be infamous to Europeans from
the massacre of the French Sisters of Mercy and other
foreigners on June 21st, 1870, in which the most
76 CHINA
appalling brutality was exhibited ; as usual the political
agitators who instigated the riot got off. The Eoman
Catholic Cathedral Church, which was destroyed on
that occasion, has since been rebuilt, and the new
building was consecrated in 1897. The building
occupies a commanding site on the river bank. All
the missions and many of the foreign hongs have
agencies in the city.
The population is reputed to be 1,000,000, but there
is no statistical evidence to justify such large figures.
The area of the city is far less than that of the Ports-
mouth boroughs with their 180,000, and the houses
without exception are one-storied. The suburbs,
however, are very extensive, and there is the usual
vagueness as to where the town begins and ends.
The city walls are quadrate, and extend about 4000
feet in the direction of each cardinal point. The
advent of foreigners has caused a great increase in
the value of real estate all over Tientsin, and as new
industries are introduced every year, the tendency is
still upward.
Li Hung-chang authorised Mr. Tong Kin-seng to sink
a coal shaft at Tong Shan (60 miles N.E. of Tientsin)
in the seventies ; this was done and proved the pre-
cursor of a railway, 'which has since been extended to
Shanhaikwan for military purposes, and from thence
round the Gulf of Liau Tung to Kiuchow ; 1900 will
see this line pushed in to Newchwang. In 1897 the
line to Peking was opened, and proved such a success
that the line had to be doubled in 1898-9. From
Peng-tai, about 7 miles from the capital, the trans-
continental line to Hankow branches off. This line
has been already made as far as Pao-ting-fu, the
provincial capital of Chih-li, and is now open to traffic.
Its continuation is in the hands of Uie Belgians.
About 435 miles in all are open to goods and passenger
traffic. As usual, the railway has brought aU sorts of
foreseen and unforeseen contingencies with it. Farmers
near Shanhaikwan are supplying fruit and vegetables
TIENTSIN 77
to Tientsin. An enormous trade in pea-nuts (with
Canton) has been created. Coal has come extensively
into Chinese household use ; the foreign residents are
developing a first-rate watering-place at Pei-tai-ho on
the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, and all the various industries of
the city have been stimulated. Brick buildings are
springing up in all directions, and the depressing-
looking adobe (mud) huts are diminishing.
The foreigners live in the three concessions, British,
French, and German, which fringe the river below the
city, and cover an area of less than 500 acres. The
Japanese are now (1900) taking up a concession in
accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Shimono-
seki. Very extensive building operations are going on
throughout the concessions, which have excellent roads,
with police, oil, gas-lamps, etc., etc. The British Muni-
cipality has a handsome Town Hall, completed in 1889 ;
adjoining there is a well-kept public garden, opened in
the year of Jubilee and styled Victoria Park. An
excellent recreation ground of ten acres is also being
developed, and three miles distant there is a capital
race-course. There are two hotels (the Astor House
and Globe), two clubs (Tientsin Club and Concordia, the
latter chiefly German), a theatre, an excellent library,
three churches (Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Union),
and no public-houses.
Distilling is one of the largest local industries ; it is
chiefly from kowliang (sorghum) or millet. Although
a spirit, it is called "wine," and is exported to the
south in large quantities. The manufacture of coarse,
unrefined salt by the evaporation of sea water is also
carried on near Taku ; the produce is stacked along the
river bank just below the native city, and sometimes
gives off very offensive smells, rendering life a burden.
The trade in salt is a Government monopoly. Carpets,
shoes, glass, coarse earthenware, and fireworks are also
made in large quantities in the city, but Tientsin is at
present essentially a centre for distribution and collec-
tion rather than for manufacture. The exports include
78 CHINA
coal, wool (from Kokonor, Kansuh, etc.), bristles, straw-
braid, goat skins, furs, wine, etc. The export trade is
a recent creation, and is largely due to foreign initiative.
Wool-cleaning and braid and bristle-sorting are the
chief industries in the foreign hongs except those of
the Eussians, who are exclusively engaged in the transit
of tea. The imports are of the usual miscellaneous
nature : tea for the Desert and Siberia, mineral oil,
matches, and needles figure next to piece goods. The
fine arts are unknown to the Tientsinese except in the
shape of cleverly made mud-figures ; these are painted
and make really admirable statuettes, but are difiScult
to carry away, being remarkably brittle.
The export coal trade is rapidly expanding, 218,618
tons having been cleared in 1898. The general trade
is increasing by leaps and bounds, and no wonder, as
Tientsin is practically the only sea outlet for the entire
trade of the provinces of Chihli, Shansi, Shensi, Kansuh,
and part of Honan, with a population not far short of
100,000,000. The total net value of the trade in the
years 1896-7-8, less re-exports, was Tls. 51,316,367;
Tls. 55,059,017 ; and Tls. 63,064,148 ; the net foreign
imports in 1898 being valued at Tls. 32,579,514, and
the native imports at Tls. 28,198,595 gross and Tls.
18,390,950 net after deduction of re-exports. The
export trade, which twenty years ago was practically
nil, was last year, not including re-exports, Tls.
12,093,684. The duty collected was Tls. 1,016.412,
an increment of Tls. 43,375 on that of the previous
year. Opium tends to a vanishing point from native
competition. The figures for 1896-7-8 are piculs
1,170,928, and 912.
TAKU
This village is situated at the mouth of the Pei-ho,
on the southern side of the river, about sixty-seven
miles from Tientsin. The land is so flat at Taku that
PEI-TAI-HO 79
it is difficult for a stranger to detect the entrance to the
river. There are two anchorages, an outer and inner.
The former extends from the Customs Junks to
three mUes outside the Bar, seaward ; the latter from
Liang-kia-yuan on the south to the Customs Jetty,
Tz'chu-lin, on the north. The village is a poor one,
possessing few shops, no buildings of interest except
the forts, and the only foreign residents are the Customs
employes and some pilots. A railway from the adjoin-
ing town of Tungku (two miles up the river) to Tientsin
was completed in 1888.
Taku is memorable on account of the engagements
that have taken place between its forts and the British
and French naval forces. The first attack was made on
the 20th May, 1858, by the British squadron under Sir
Michael Seymour, when the forts were passed and
Lord Elgin proceeded to Tientsin, where on the 26th
June he signed the famous Treaty of Tientsin. The
second attack, which was fatally unsuccessful, was
made by the British forces in June, 1859. The third
took place on the 21st August, 1860, when the forts
were captured, the booms placed across the river
destroyed, and the British ships sailed triumphantly up
to Tientsin. The water on the bar ranges from about
two to fourteen feet at the spring tides. At certain
states of the tide steamers are obliged to anchor outside
untH there is sufficient water to cross.
PEI-TAI-HO
Pei-Tai-Ho is a watering-place on the Gulf of Pe-
chi-li, which the energy and enterprise of the foreign
communities of Tientsin has called into existence
within the last few years. It lies some 22 miles S.W.
by W. from Shanhaikwan, where the Great Wall meets
the sea, in latitude 39 deg. 49 min. N., longitude
119 deg. 30 min. E., and is distant from Tientsin by
railway 157 miles. Nine miles distant is the harbour
8o CHINA
of Cheng Wang Kow, which the Chinese Imperial
Government has declared its intention of making a
Treaty Port. It is hoped by the aid of foreign money
that Cheng Wang may be made into an ice-free, deep-
water, safe harbour, giving access in all weathers to
great ocean-going steamers all the year round, but
works of very considerable magnitude and expense will
be necessary before this issue is reached. The hinter-
land is rich in coal and iron, and has good railway
communication with Tientsin and Peking ; there is
little doubt that if harbour facilities were given Cheng
Wang would soon become a very important emporium.
The land round about has all been taken up by a close
Chinese syndicate, and as the success of the place might
militate against the interests of Tientsin and Tongku, it
is not likely to meet with much encouragement there.
The boundaries of the Treaty Port have been extended
along the foreshore of Shallow Bay for nine miles, and
are then spread out as to include the three or four
square miles on which the foreigners have settled at
Pei-Tai-Ho. The fact that the watering-place lies
within the port limits • gives legal title to all land
purchase, and will ensure some sort of foreign municipal
control in the near future. An attempt is now being
made to obtain this from the Imperial Government;
meanwhile, the foreign community has made temporary
arrangements, and has submitted to voluntary taxation
for combined sanitation.
Pei-Tai-Ho at present is accessible only by rail from
Peking, Tientsin, and Taku, but the current year wUl
also see it in railway communication with Newchwaug.
The railway station lies from four to six miles from the
various settlements, and the journey is made by chair,
donkey, or walking. Carriages cannot be used, as the
roads are like those wliich General Wade superseded in
the Scottish Highlands. There are six miles of beach
of every possible variety, and the bathing is excellent
from tlie middle of May to the first of October. The
country rises at once from the shore to undulating
PEI-TAI-HO 8 1
uplands ; most of the houses are at an elevation of fifty
or a hundred feet above sea-level. At the west end the
country is diversified by the Lotus HiUs, a series of
granite rocks which come close to the sea, and are an
offshoot from the Pettah Hill twelve miles inland. The
Lotus peaks rise to about 400 feet The soil is chiefly
a sand formed by disintegrated granite ; it is very dry,
fertile, and non-malarial. The water is excellent, but
it is feared that the large access of foreigners, and their
careless Chinese servants, may issue in well- contamina-
tion if precautions are not promptly taken. In 1896
there were about twenty tenements, in 1899 about one
hundred ; last summer the population was slightly over
four hundred, chiefly from Tientsin, Peking, and the
mission stations of Chih-li. There are three major and
two minor settlements ; West Shore, Eocky Point, and
East Cliff being the designatories of the former. Most
of the Tientsin and Peking laymen are at West Shore ;
it has the advantage of proximity to the Lotus Hills
and the station, and has more pleasing scenery near
at hand. Its demerits are a somewhat tame beach —
nothing but sand — and inferior bathing. The latter is
due to stinging medusm or jellyfish, and to the nearness
of the Eiver Tai, which often discolours the water.
Both demerits have, however, been exaggerated. The
missionaries are chiefly at Eocky Point; there they
have an Association which regulates their land tenure,
sanitation, Sunday observance, etc. A strong body of
laymen has now settled to the west of this "Asso-
ciation " settlement, attracted by the central position,
better beach, and bathing. The East CUff was originally
a mission investment, but is now a general settle
ment; it is furthest away from the station, and has
inferior bathing (one place excepted), but on the other
hand it has magnificent land and sea-scapes and faces
due East, unlike the other settlements which have a
Southern aspect. The rains are heavy in July and early
August, but the sandy soil enables one to be out-of-
doors at once after heavy rain. The temperature
G
82 CHINA
varies from 4 degrees to 10 degrees below that of
Peking and Tientsin in the height of summer; there
are no hot winds, as the prevailing breeze is nearly
south, and is sea-borne.
NEWCHWANG
Newchwang is the most northerly port in China open
to foreign trade. It is situated in the province of
Shing-king, in Manchuria. It is called by the natives
Ying-tz, and lies about thirteen miles from the mouth
of the Eiver Liao, which falls into the Gulf of Liao-
tung, a continuation of the Gulf of Pechili.
Before the port was opened, comparatively little was
known of this part of the Central Bongdom. Man-
churia has since, however, been largely colonised by
the Chinese, who now outnumber the natives. The
word Ying-tz means military station, and that was the
only use formerly made of the port. Between the
years 1858 and 1860 the British fleet assembled in Ta-
lien-wan Bay, and early in 1861 the foreign settlement
was established. The town of Newchwang itself is
distant from Ying-tz about thirty miles, and is a
sparsely populated and uninteresting place, but the
advent of the railway is rapidly increasing its im-
portance. An extension of the Shanhaikwan railway
to Newchwang has been sanctioned, and the Eussians
are also at work on a line intended primarily for the
conveyance of material for the construction of the line
connecting Talienwan and Port Arthur with the Trans-
Siberian Eailway.
The country about the port of Newchwang is bare
and desolate, and in sailing up the ri\er a most cheer-
less prospect greets the traveller's eye. Ying-tz is
surrounded by dreary marshes, and the land under
cultivation produces principally beans. The river is
closed by ice for more than three months every year,
during which period the residents are entirely cut off
TALIENWAN^PORT ARTHUR 83
from the outer world. The climate, however, is healthy
and bracing. The population of the place is estimated
at 60,000.
The chief articles of trade at the port are beans and
bean-cake ; 4,220,963 piculs of the former, and 3,695,821
piculs of the latter, being exported in 1898. The net
quantity of opium imported in 1898 was 92 piculs,
compared with 2453 piculs in 1879. The import of
opium has of late years shown an almost continuous
decline, the poppy being largely and successfully culti-
vated in Manchuria. The total value of the trade of
the port for 1898 amounted to Tls. 32,441,315, as
against Tls. 26,358,671 in 1897.
TALIENWAN
Talienwan is a bay to the north-east of Port Arthur,
on the Liaotung Peninsula. It was acquired on lease
from China by Kussia in 1898, and a free port is to be
estabKshed, which will be connected by the Manchurian
Eailway with the Trans-Siberian Eailway, of which
latter it will in reality be the principal terminus.
Talienwan is an open bay, some six miles wide and
six deep, and open to the easterly winds. It was in
Victory Bay, an inlet of Talienwan, that the British
fleet and transports anchored during the hostilities
with China in 1860.
PORT ARTHUR
Port Arthur, at the point of the " Eegent's sword,"
or Liaotung Peninsula, was formerly China's chief
naval arsenal, but was captured in the Japanese War
and its defences and military works destroyed. In
1898 Eussia obtained a lease of Port Arthur and
Talienwan, and is now rapidly fortifying the former
and making it into a great naval stronghold. It will'
be connected by the Manchurian Eailway with the
Trans-Siberian Line.
84 CHINA
CHEFOO
Chefoo, in the Province of Shantung, is the name
used by foreigners to denote this Treaty Port; the
Chinese name of the place is Yentai, and Chefoo
proper is on the opposite side of the harbour. Chefoo
is situated in lat. 37 deg. 33 min. 20 sec. N. and long.
121 deg. 25 min. 02 sec. E. The port was opened to
foreign trade in 1863. The number of foreigners on the
books of the various Consulates is about 400, but more
than half of them — missionaries — ^live inland. Chefoo
has no Settlement or Concession, but a recognised
Foreign Quarter, which is well kept, and has good
clean roads, and is well lighted. A General Purposes
Committee looks after the interests of the Foreign
Quarter, and derives the revenue at its disposal from
voluntary contributions by residents. The natives are
most orderly and civil to foreigners. There are three
good hotels, and at least three excellent boarding houses,
all of which are full of visitors from July to the end of
September. The climate is bracing. The winter, which
is severe, lasts from the beginning of December to end
of March ; April, May, and June are lovely months, and
not hot ; July and August are hot and rainy months ;
and September, October, and November form a most
perfect autumn, with warm days, cool winds, and cold
nights. Strong northerly gales are experienced in the
late autumn and through the winter, and the roadstead
gives but an uncomfortable, though safe, anchorage for
steamers. During the summer and autumn amuse-
ments are varied — sea bathing, lawn tennis, picnics,
etc. — and there is a good club. The races take place
towards the end of September. Chefoo is two days'
journey from Shanghai, and in the summer tourist
tickets from Shanghai and return are issued by the
Indo-China S.N. Co., the China Merchants S.N. Co.,
and the China Navigation Co. Since the declaration
of war (August, 1894) between China and Japan the
CHEFOO 85
port has been much frequented by vessels of the
different foreign navies, and its close proximity to
Corea will cause these visits to be continued; the
result is that Chefoo has become a coaling station,
and large stocks of Cardiff coal are kept to supply
the foreign men-of-war. During the winter of 1894-95
the port was in a state of excitement owing to the close
proximity of, and possible occupation by, the Japanese.
In 1876 the Chefoo Convention was concluded at
Chefoo by the late Sir Thomas Wade and the former
Viceroy of Chihli, Li Hung-chang. The bunding of
the western shore, recently carried out by the Chinese
authorities, has removed many of the difficulties formerly
attending upon the shipping business of the port. An
enterprise has been recently established by a Wine
Company of substantial standing ; the soil of the
locality lends itself to such an industry, and the
future success of the proprietors of the first Far
Eastern wine-growing concern is a matter of consider-
able interest.
The trade of Chefoo, which is increasing, is principally
in bean-cake and beans, of which large quantities are
annually exported to the southern ports of China. In
1898 the net export of bean-cake amounted to 975,521
piculs, and of beans to 77,759 piculs, as against 1,298,334
piculs of the former, and 93,102 piculs of the latter in
1897. Silk, straw-braid, and vermicelli are the other
chief exports. The import of opium was 498 piculs
compared with 3536 piculs in 1879, the trade having
gradually dwindled. The net value of the trade of
the port for 1898, after deducting re-exports, was
Tls. 26,238,774, for 1897 Tls. 22,051,976, and for
1896 Tls. 19,533,953.
86 CHINA
WEI-HAI-WEI
Wei-hai-wei is situated on the south side of the Gulf
of Pechihli near the extremity of the Shantung Pro-
montory, and about 115 miles distant from Port Arthur
on the north-west, and the same from the German port
of Kiaochau on the south-west. Formerly a strongly
fortified Chinese naval station, it was captured by the
Japanese on 30th January, 1895, and was held by them
pending the payment of the indemnity, which was
finally liquidated in 1898. Before the evacuation by
the Japanese, an agreement was arrived at between
Great Britain and China that the former should take
over the territory on lease from the latter, and
accordingly, on the 24th May, 1898, the British flag
was formally hoisted, the Commissioners representing
their respective countries at the ceremony being Consul
Hopkins, of Chefoo, and Captain King- Hall, of H.M.S.
Narcissus, for Great Britain, and Taotai Yen and Captain
Lin, of the Chinese war- vessel Foochi, for China.
The harbour forms a deep bight or bay, about eighteen
miles in circumference, sheltered to the northward by
the island of Liukungtao, which is about two miles long
from east to west, and one mile from north to south in
its widest part, being approximately pear-shaped. The
northern or sea coast of Liukungtao is composed of steep
cliffs, while the opposite side is sandy beach, the inter-
vening hills rising to a height of about 500 feet. The
general appearance of the harbour is picturesque, the
bay being surrounded with hills, the highest of which
is about 1600 feet. The town of Wei-hai-wei, which
has a population of about 4000, is situated at the north-
west corner of the bay.
The harbour is good, having two entrances, one to the
north and the other to the east, the easterly one, how-
ever, being closed to all ships drawing more than 19 feet
of water. Good anchorage is obtainable for the largest
ships within a few hundred yards from the island. All
KIAOCHAU 87
the Government buildings on the island have or are
being put in repair, the largest of these, namely Queen's
House, formerly the Chinese Yamen, being used as a
Council Chamber, Commissioner's Eesidence, etc., and
here the Commissioner dispenses justice every forenoon.
The next largest building is now used as an Officers'
Club, one corner of which is supposed to be the place
where Admiral Ting committed suicide, the house
having been formerly his private residence. Amongst
the other houses of importance are the Canteen, Warrant
Officers' Club, and Barracks. There is also a signal
station from which passing ships are signalled. Small
quantities of minerals, such as gold, mica, silver, lead,
etc., have been discovered, and are about to be worked.
There is some shooting to be obtained on the mainland,
and good bathing from both the island and mainland in
the summer. Sulphur springs are also found on the
mainland. There are also cricket, football, hockey,
polo, and tennis-clubs. The climate is said to be
better than that of any of the Treaty Ports.
KIAOCHAU
Kiaochau, in Shantung, was occupied by a German
squadron on the 14th November, 1897, in satisfaction
for the murder of two German missionaries, and on the
2nd September, 1898, it was declared a free port. It is
held on lease from China for the term of ninety-nine
years. Although the port is free, in the sense that
no import or export duties are levied, a branch of
the Chinese Customs has been admitted, which takes
cognisance of the trade between Kiaochau and Chinese
ports. The Bay is an extensive inlet, about two miles
north-west of Cape Evelyn. The entrance is not more
than If miles across, the east side being a low promon-
tory with rocky shores, with the village of Chingtao
(" green island," from a small grassy island close to the
land) about two miles from the point of the peninsula.
88 CHINA
On the west side of the entrance is another promontory
with hills rising to about 600 feet. The shore here is
rocky and dangerous on the west side, but on the east
side is a good stretch of sandy beach. The bay is so
large that the land at the head can only just be seen
from the entrance (about 15 to 20 miles away), and the
water gradually gets shallower as the north side of the
bay is approached. Kiaochau city stands at the north-
west corner of the bay. There are two anchorages for
big ships : one, the larger and better, round the point
of the east promontory, on the north side, and the other,
smaller one, at Chingtao, on the south side. The hills
are nearly bare rock, and gravel, and limestone, but an
extensive scheme of afforestation has been decided upon.
The soil of the valleys between the ranges and the plain
country on the north-east is alluvial and very fertile,
and is carefully cultivated. Wheat, barley, millet,
maize, Indian corn, and many other grains in smaller
quantities are grown. Concessions have been granted
for two lines of railway running from Kiaochau into
the interior, and there appears to be every prospect
of the place rapidly becoming a great commercial
emporium. The foreign residential quarter at Tsintau
has been well laid out, and there is a good foreign hotel.
The first sod of the Shantung Eailway was cut by Prince
Henry of Prussia in October, 1899. There is a German
newspaper published, daily and weekly, called the
Deutsch Asiatiaohen Warte. The climate is temperate,
and it is expected that the Bay will, in course of time,
become a summer resort for the residents of Shanghai,
there being an excellent bathing beach.
SHANGHAI
The most northerly of the five ports opened to
foreign trade by the British Treaty of Nanking is
situate at the extreme south-east corner of the province
of Kiang-su, iu lat, 31 deg. 15 min. N. and long. 121
SHANGHAI 89
deg. 29 mill. E. of Greenwich, at the junction of the
rivers Hwang-po and Woosung (tlie latter called by
Europeans the Soochow Creek), about twelve miles
above the newly-opened treaty port of Woo-sung, now
being marked out for foreign residence by a foreign
land company, where their united waters deboucli into
the estuary of the Yangtsze. Shanghai lies in a vast
plain, the nearest hills, of only some 300 feet in height,
being thirty miles to the westward. The soil is alluvial
and extremely rich ; it supports a great variety of food
and other stuffs. Tlris Iviangsu plain has been called
"the Garden of China," and the population here is,
perhaps, denser than in any other part of the land —
eiglit hundred inhabitants to the square mile is not an
exas£;erated estimate. Eice, cotton, and grain are the
main products in the immediate neighbourhood ; rice
to the west and north, cotton to the west and soutli :
but with the greater demand for cotton by the mills
started within the last few years, the cultivation of
rice is being pushed farther away from Slianghai, and
cotton is taking its place. The convenience of inland
transit is here very great ; rivers, canals, and creeks are
in every direction, but they form a great obstacle to
free riding and walking. Mulberry trees are not
grown to any extent in the neighbourhood. Wheat,
barley, rice, green foods of all kinds, cabbage, turnips,
carrots, melons, cucumbers, potatoes, yams, chihlies,
the egg-plant, cress, etc., abound. Of fruits, Slianghai
is famous for its peaclies ; plums, strawberries, cherries
(small in size), peepaws (or medlars), and persiiiions are
common. The apple and pear, grape, chestnut, and
walnut are brought from the north, oranges and bananas
in great quantity from the south. The bamboo is
common in the district, as is the pine, cypress, willow,
and a species of elm. The chrysanthemum and peony
are the favourite flowers. Eoses, tulips, pansies,
hyacinths, fuchsias, geraniums, and other European
flowering annuals, are highly developed in the public
and private gardens of the foreign settlements. Of
90 CHINA
birds, the crow, magpie, swallow, and sparrow abound ;
many species of lark, finch, and thrush are common,
and the feathered tribe, as a whole, is plentiful in
Kiangsu ; but it is otherwise with four-footed animals.
For a more detailed account of the flora and fauna of
the neighbourhood we must refer the general reader to
Williams' " Middle Kingdom," and the student to the
scientific works and periodicals in the Asiatic Society's
library.
The river opposite the city and foreign settlements,
once a narrow canal, was, some twenty-five years ago,
1800 feet broad at low water, but has been rapidly
narrowing till it is now only 1200 feet. The Soochow
Creek, which was, judging by old records, at one time
at least three miles across, has now a breadth of less
than a hundred yards. The average water on the bar
at Woosung at high water springs is nineteen feet,
the greatest depth of late years being twenty-three feet.
The bar is the cause of heavy loss to shipowners and
merchants through the detention of ocean steamers.
After repeated efforts to induce the Chinese authorities
to deepen it, an effort was made to cope with the evil
by dredging, but after a few months' work it was found
that the experiment must prove ineffective, and in
September, 1892, it was abandoned as useless. A sum
of Tls. 17,350 was subscribed in 1894 to obtain the
opinion of a Euopean expert, the Chinese authorities
contributing Tls. 10,000, and in the spring of 1897 the
services of the Dutch engineer, Mr. de Eijke, were
engaged through the Chamber of Commerce to examine
into and draw up a report on this question. Mr. de
Eijke, with the assistance of the Coast Inspector's
department of the Maritime Customs, made a close
study of the river and bar, and his report was last year
(1899) printed and circulated. As a result it was
proposed that a Conservancy Board should be estab-
lished, but nothing definite has yet been done. The
cost of putting Mr. de Rijke's schemes into operation
would be considerable.
SHANGHAI 9 1
The approach by sea to Shanghai is now well lighted
and buoyed, and the dangers of the ever-shifting banks
and shoals as well guarded as can be expected. Under
the superintendence of the engineering department of
the Maritime Customs, lighthouses have been erected
on West Volcano, Shaweishan, North Saddle, Gutzlaff,
Bonham, and Steep Islands, Peiyiishan, and at Woo-
sung. There are also two lightships in the Yangtsze
below Woosung.
History.
Shanghai — the name means " upper sea " or " near
the sea" — is mentioned as existing in B.C. 249. It was
a place of some importance in the eleventh century,
when it was made a customs station ; it became a Jisien
or third-rate city in the fourteenth century. The walls,
which are three and a half miles in circuit, with seven
gates, were erected at the time of the Japanese invasion,
in the latter part of the sixteenth century. It had
been an important seat of trade for many centuries
before the incursion of foreigners, and even two thousand
years ago was celebrated as the seat of an extensive
cotton manufacturing industry. Shanghai was visited
in 1832 by Mr. H. H. Lindsay, head of the late firm of
Lindsay & Co., and the Eev. Chas. Gutzlaff, in the
Lord Amherst, with a view of opening up trade. Mr.
Lindsay says he counted upwards of four hundred
junks passing inwards every day for seven days, and
found the place possessed commodious wharves and
large warehouses. Three years later it was visited by
the Eev. Dr. Medhurst, who confirmed the account
given by Mr. Lindsay. On the 13th June, 1842, a
British fleet under Vice- Admiral Sir William Parker,
and a military force of 4000 men under Sir Hugh
Gough, captured the Woosung forts, which mounted
175 guns, and took the hsien (district) city of Paoshan.
On the 19th, after a slight resistance, the force gained
92 CHINA
possession of Shanghai, the officials and a large pro-
portion of the inhabitants having fled the previous
evening, although great preparations had been made
for the defence, 406 pieces of cannon being taken
possession of by the British. The people, however,
rapidly returned, and business was resumed. The same
force afterwards captured Chinkiang and Hankow,
after which the treaty of Nanking was signed, and the
ports of Swatow, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai
were opened to trade. The city was evacuated on the
23rd June.
The ground selected by Captain Balfour, the first
British Consul, for a settlement for his nationals, lies
about half a mile north of the city walls, between the
Yang-king-pang and Soochow Creeks, and extends
backward from the river to a ditch connecting the two,
called the Defence Creek, thus forming what may be
called an island, a mile square. The port was formally
declared open to trade on the 17th November, 1843.
Some years were occupied in draining and laying out
the ground, which was mostly a marsh with numerous
ponds and creeks. The foreigners in the mean time
lived at Namtao, a suburb between the city and the
river, the British Consulate being in the city. In two
years a few houses were built in the Settlement, and
by 1849 most foreigners had taken up their residence
in it. By that time twenty-five firms were established,
and the foreign residents numbered a hundred, includ-
ing seven ladies. In that year an English Church
was built, and on 21st November the foundation of
the Eoman Catholic Cathedral at Tungkadoo was laid.
The French were, in 1849, granted the ground between
the city walls and the British Settlement on the same
terms, and, in exchange for help rendered in driving
out the rebels who had seized the city in 1853, got a
grant of the land extending for about a mile to the
south between tlio city walls and the river. They have
since, by purchase, extended the bounds of the Conces-
sion westward to the " Ningpo Joss-house," a mile from
SHANGHAI 93
the river. Negotiations were instituted for an exten-
sion of the Concession to Sicawei, a village chiefly
occupied by the Jesuits and their converts, situated at
the end of the French Municipal road and five miles
from the French Bund, but in this the French were
only partially successful, a small extension as far as
the Old Cemetery being granted them in 1899.
The exact dimensions have not yet been deliminated.
Later on the Americans rented land immediately north
of Soochow Creek, in the district called Hongkew, so
that the ground now occupied by foreigners extends for
about five miles on the left bank of the river. The
land in the British Settlement was assessed in 1896 at
Tls. 18,532,573, and that in Hongkew at Tls. 10,379,735 ;
in 1890 at Tls. 12,397,810, and Tls. 4,806,448 ; and in
1880 at Tls. 6,118,265 and Tls. 1,945,325 respectively,
the total of Tls. 28,912,308 in 1896 showing an advance
since 1880 of over two hundred and fifty-eight per cent.
While the value of the land in the British Settlement
had trebled, that in Hongkew had increased to over
five times what it was worth sixteen years previously.
A great rise in values took place during the later
months of 1895, and this has continued during the last
four years, chiefly caused by the influx of native capital
seeking safe investment under foreign protection, and
by the great increase in population resulting from the
establishment of numerous cotton mills, silk filatures,
and other industries. The rental assessment in 1898
of 482 foreign houses in the British Settlement was
Tls. 605,778, and in Hongkew of 700 houses Tls.
383,854; that of 13,821 native houses in the former
Tls. 2,192,459, and of 20,126 in the latter, Tls. 1,188,847,
a total annual rental assessment of house property of
Tls. 4,370,938. During the last four years more than
10,000 new houses have been built. In the French
Concession the assessed value of land was Tls. 4,664,942
in 1899 ; the rental assessment of foreign houses, Tls.
83,500, and of native houses, Tls. 506,250. The British
and French Settlements, exclusive of the extension
94 CHINA
acquired in 1899, are now all built over, and the vacant
spaces in Hongkew are being rapidly covered. Many
of the best foreign houses, both in the Settlements and
outside roads, are now occupied by Chinese, retired
officials and merchants.
A petition was sent to Peking in 1899 praying for a
greatly enlarged boundary for the Settlement, and this
had the support of the Consular Body and also of the
native officials and gentry, and after much delay the
matter was finally referred to the Viceroy at Nanking
for settlement. The extension which was asked for
has been granted, and the new territory is being actively
surveyed by the Municipal Council for the formation of
roads, etc. It is already policed. The exact boundaries
of the Settlement now are : — Upon the North : the Soo-
chow Creek from the Hsiao Sha Ferry to a point about
seventy yards west of entrance thereinto of the Defence
Creek, thence in a northerly direction to the Shanghai-
Paoshan boundary, thence following this boundary to the
point where it meets the mouth of the Kukapang. Upon
the east : the Whangpoo Eiver from the mouth of the
Kukapang to the mouth of the Yangking-pang. Upon
the South : the Yangking-pang from its mouth to the
entrance thereinto of the Defence Creek, thence in a
westerly direction following the line of the northern
branch of the Great Western Koad, to the Temple of
Agriculture in the rear of the Bubbling Well village.
Upon the West : from the Temple of Agricultiire in a
northerly direction to the Haiso Sha Ferry on the
Soochow Creek. The Japanese treaty of 1896 gave
that Power the right to a separate Settlement at
Shanghai, but no definite claim has yet been made
for such an area. Most of the land along the outside
roads, and at Pootung on the opposite bank of the
river, is now also rented by foreigners, but natives
have recently been considerable purchasers of landed
property within the Settlements. All ground belongs
nominally to the Emperor of China, but is rented in
perputuity, a tax of fifteen hundred copper cash, equal
SHANGHAI 95
to about a dollar and a half per mow, being paid to the
Government annually. The Settlement land was
bought from the original proprietors at about |50 per
mow, which was at least twice its then value. Some
lots have since been sold at |10,000 to $16,000 a mow.
About six mow equal one acre.
As a port for foreign trade Shanghai grew but
gradually until it gained a great impetus by the
opening, in 1861, of the Yangtsze and northern ports
secured by the Treaty of Tientsin, and a further increase
by the opening up of Japan. In March, 1848, owing
to an assault on some missionaries near Shanghai, Mr.
Alcock, the British Consul, blockaded the port and
stopped the passage outwards of eleven hundred grain
junks. This drastic measure, by which grain for the
North was cut off, brought the authorities to their
■ senses, and after sending a man-of-war to Nanking the
matter was arranged. The first event of importance
since the advent of foreigners was the taking of the
city by the Triad rebels on 7th September, 1853, who
held it for seventeen months, although repeatedly
besieged and attacked by the Imperialists. This caused
a large number of refugees to seek shelter within the
foreign Settlements, and the price of land rose very
considerably. At that time a Volunteer force was
formed among the foreign residents, under the com-
mand of Captain, afterwards Sir Thomas, Wade, which
did really good service. The battle of " Muddy Plat "
was fought on 4th April, 1854, when the Volunteers, in
conjunction with the Naval forces, consisting in all of
300 men with one field-piece, drove the Imperialists,
numbering 10,000 men, from the neighbourhood of the
Settlements and burned their camps. Two of the
Volunteers and one American were killed, and ten men
wounded. Owing to the occupation of the city the
authorities were powerless to collect the duties, which
for a short time were not paid, and it was in conse-
quence agreed in July, 1854, between the Taotai and
the three Consuls (British, French, and United States),
96 CHINA
that they should be collected under foreign control.
This was found to work so much to the advantage of
the Chinese Government that the system was extended,
subsequently to the Treaty of Tientsin, to all the open
ports. The Foreign Inspectorate of Customs was estab-
lished in 1861, the headquarters of which were for
some years, and according to the original regulations
ought still to be, at Shanghai, In 1861 the Taipings
approached Shanghai, occupied the buildings of the
Jesuits at Sicawei, and threatened the city and settle-
ments. The capture of Soochow on 25th May, 1860,
had driven a large number of the inhabitants of that
city and the surrounding districts to Shanghai for pro-
tection, so that the native population increased rapidly.
It was variously estimated at from four hundred thou-
sand to a million, but the smaller number is probably
nearer the truth. By 1861 provisions had increased
in price to four times what they had been some years
previously. Efforts were made to keep the rebels at
a distance from Shanghai j a detachment of British
Eoyal Marines and an Indian Regiment garrisoned the
walls, while the gates on the side towards the French
Settlement were guarded by French Marines. In
August, 1861, the city was attacked, and the suburbs
between the city walls and river were in consequence
destroyed by the French, the rebels being ultimately
driven back. In December the rebels to the number
of one hundred thousand agaiii threatened the Settle-
ments. The approaches were barricaded and the Defence
Creek constructed and fortified at an expense of forty-
five thousand taels. Before the close of 1862 the rebels
had been driven by the British forces beyond a radius
of thirty miles around Shanghai. So immensely did
the price of land rise that it is stated ground which
had originally cost foreigners fifty pounds per acre was
sold for ten thousand pounds. At this time the old
Eace Course and Cricket Ground, situated within the
British Settlement, was sold at such an enormous profit
that after the shareholders had been repaid the original
SHANGHAI 97
cost there was a balance of some forty-five thousand
taels, which the owners generously devoted to the
foundation of a fund for the use of the public, to be
applied to the purposes of recreation only. Unfor-
tunately thirty thousand taels of this amount were
lent by the treasurer on his own responsibility to the
Club, in which institution he was a shareholder. As
the shareholders were never able to repay this loan out
of the profits on the Club, the building and furniture
were taken over in 1869 by the trustees on behalf of
the Eecreation Fund, to which the building still belongs.
This fund has proved very useful in rendering assistance
to some other public institutions, besides having pur-
chased all the ground in the interior of the Eace Course,
which is now leased by the Municipality and, with the
exception of the steeplechase course at training seasons
only, set aside as a Public Eecreation Ground, by which
name it is known.
At the time the local native Authorities were severely
pressed they availed themselves of the services of an
American adventurer named Ward, who raised a band
of deserters from foreign ships and rowdies of all
nations who had congregated at Shanghai, with whose
help he drilled a regiment of natives. After Ward was
killed the force passed under the command of another
low-caste American of the name of Burgevine, who
subsecLuently transferred his services to the rebels.
The Imperial Authorities found it impossible to control
these raw and undisciplined levies, and at their earnest
request Admiral Sir James Hope consented to the
appointment of Major, afterwards General, Gordon,
E.E., to the command. Having by him been made
amenable to discipline, this force now rendered the
greatest service in the suppression of the rebellion ;
indeed, it is generally believed that the Taipings would
never have been overcome but for the assistance of
"The Ever Victorious Army," as this hastily raised
band was named. Amongst other services they regained
possession of the important city of Soochow on 27th
H
98 CHINA
November, 1863, which virtually ended the rebellion.
There is, however, much room for doubt as to the
wisdom of foreigners aiding in its suppression, many of
those best capable of judging being of opinion that the
civilisation of the empire would liave had a much better
chance of progressing had the decaying dynasty been
overthrown. Certainly European nations, merely in
exchange for the promise of neutrality, might have
made almost any terms. A monument in memory of
the officers of this regiment who feU stands at the
north end of the Bund. From 1860 to 1866 one British
and two Indian Eegiments and a battery of Artillery
were stationed at Shanghai.
Since that time there have been few historical events
worthy of record in a brief summary. On Christmas
Eve, 1870, the British Consulate was burned down and
most of the records completely lost. In May, 1874,
a riot occurred in the French Settlement, owing to the
intention of the Municipal Council to make a road
through an old graveyard belonging to the Ningpo
Guild. One or two Europeans were severely injured,
and eight natives lost their lives. A considerable
amount of foreign-owned property was destroyed.
Another riot took place on 16th and 17th July, 1898,
owing to the authorities of the French Settlement
having decided to remove the "Ningpo Joss-house."
The French Volunteers were called out and a force
landed from men-of-war, which measures speedily sup-
pressed the riot, fifteen natives being reported killed
and wounded. An extensive fire in the French Con-
cession in August, 1879, destroyed 221 houses ; the
loss was estimated at Tls. 1,500,000. In 1894 a fire
outside the native city along the river bank having
cleared away a great and noisome collection of huts
and hovels, advantage was taken of this clearing by
the Native Authorities to make a broad Bund on the
model of the Foreign Settlement roads. This Bund
extends from the south corner of the French Bund,
along the river some three and a half miles, to the
SHANGHAI 99
Arsenal at Kao Chang Miao. It was formally declared
open by the Taotai in October, 1897. A Council has
been formed to supervise this Bund and attend to other
native municipal matters. The present head of this
Council is the celebrated General Tcheng Ki Tong ; its
offices are situated in the Bureau for Foreign Affairs
on the Bubbling Well Eoad. It is policed by a special
force composed of Sikhs and Chinese. A riot occurred
on 5th and 6th April, 1897, in consequence of an
increase in the wheelbarrow tax. It was suppressed
by the Volunteers and sailors from the men-of-war in
port, without loss of life. The Consuls and Muni-
cipal Council having submitted to the dictation of the
Wheelbarrow Guild, an indignation public meeting was
held on the 7th April, the largest meeting ever held
in the Settlements. At this meeting the action of
the Authorities was so strongly condemned that the
Council resigned. A new Council was elected and
the tax enforced, the French Municipal Council in-
creasing their tax in like proportion. The foreign
Settlements celebrated their Jubilee on 17th and 18th
November, 1893, when, it is estimated, 500,000 strangers
visited Shanghai. A medal was struck as a memorial
of the occasion.
Government.
As at all the open ports, foreigners are in judicial
matters subject to the immediate control of their Con-
suls, British subjects coming under the jurisdiction of
the Supreme Court, which was opened in September,
1865. Subjects of Her Britannic Majesty have to pay
an annual poll-tax of two dollars, for which they have
the privilege of being registered at the Consulate and
heard as plaintiffs before the Court. There is enforced
registration at several of the other Consulates, but it is
free of charge. Chinese residents in the Foreign Settle-
ments are amenable to their own laws, administered by
a so-called Mixed Court, which was established at the
lOO CHINA
instigation of Sir Harry Parkes in 1864, and originally
sat at the British Consulate. It is presided over by an
official of the rank of Tung-chi, or sub-prefect. The
cases are watched by foreign assessors from the principal
Consulates. The working of the Court, especially in
regard to civil suits, is far from satisfactory, as the
judge has not sufficient power to enforce his decisions.
The matter has for some years been supposed to be
engaging the attention of the authorities at Peking.
For the French Concession there is a separate Mixed
Court, which sits at the French Consulate. There is
a Court of Consuls which was established in 1870, the
judges of which are elected by the Consuls annually,
its purpose being to enable the Municipal Council to
be sued.
In local affairs the residents govern themselves by
means of the Municipal Council, under the authority
of the " Land Eegulations." These were originally
drawn up by H.B.M. Consul in 1845, but have since
undergone various amendments. In 1854 the first
general Land Eegulations — the city charter, as they
may be called — were arranged between the British
Consul, Captain Balfour, and the local authorities, by
which persons of all foreign nationalities were allowed
to rent land within the defined limits, and in 1863 the
so-called " American Settlement " was amalgamated
with the British into one Municipality. The "Com-
mittee of Eoads and Jetties," originally consisting of
" three upright British Merchants," appointed by the
British Consul, became in 1855 the " Municipal
Council," elected by the renters of land, and when the
revised Land Eegulations came into force in 1870, the
" Council for the Foreign Community of Shanghai
North of the Yang-king-paiig," elected in January of
each year by all householders who pay rates on an
assessed rental of five hundred taels, or owners of land
valued at five hundred taels and over. The Council
now consists of nine members of various nationalities,
who elect their own chairman and vice-chairman, and
SHANGHAI. lOI
who give their services free. The great increase of
municipal business, however, is proving so much a tax
on the time of the councillors, the chairman especially,
that some new arrangement is necessary. The Secre-
tariat was in 1897 strengthened, and its efficiency in-
creased, but no move in the direction of a change in
the Council's constitution has yet been made. A com-
mittee of residents was appointed in November, 1879,
to revise the Land Eegulations, and their work was
considered and passed by the ratepayers in May, 1881,
but the " co-operative policy," under which a voice is
given to small Powers having practically no interests
in China, equal to that given to Great Britain, caused
a delay of seventeen years. The Eegulations were
again revised and passed by the ratepayers in March,
1898, and in November the Council received a formal
notification that the additions and alterations and bye-
laws had received the approval of the Diplomatic Body
at Peking, and they have the force of law in the Anglo-
American Settlement. They give the Council the power
which it had been for nearly twenty years trying to get
to compulsorily acquire land for new roads, the exten-
sion and widening of existing roads, the extension of
lands already occupied by public works and for purposes
of sanitation, and to introduce building bye-laws. The
rights of the foreign renters and native owners concerned
are most carefully guarded, for which purpose a board
of three Land Commissioners is to be constituted, one
to be appointed by the Council, one by the registered
owners of land in the Settlement, and one by resolution
of a meeting of ratepayers. At the time of the Taiping
rebellion it was proposed by the Defence Committee,
with the almost unanimous consent of the landrenters
and residents, to make the Settlements and City with
the district around a free city, under the protection of
the Treaty Powers. Had this proposal, which was
thoroughly justifiable owing to the Imperial Govern-
ment having lost all power in the provinces, been
carried out, Shanghai would have become the chief city
I02 CHINA
ia China, and it is safe to say would have acted as a
leaven, to the ultimate immense benefit of the whole
Empire. A separate Council for the French Concession
was appointed in 1862, and now works under the
" Eeglement d'Organisation Municipale de la Conces-
sion Franpaise," passed in 1868. It consists of four
French and four foreign members, elected for two years,
half of whom retire annually. Their resolutions are
inoperative until sanctioned by the Consul-GreneraL
The members are elected by all owners of land on the
Concession, or occupants paying a rental of a thousand
francs per annum, or residents with an annual income
of four thousand francs. This, it will be noticed,
approaches much more nearly to " universal suffrage "
than the franchise of the other Settlements, which,
however, it is the intention to considerably reduce under
the new Eegulations. The qualification for councillors
north of the Yang-king-pang is the payment of rates to
the amount of fifty taels annually, or being a house-
holder paying rates on an assessed rental of twelve
hundred taels. For the French Concession the require-
ment is a monetary one of about the same amount.
Several efforts have been made to amalgamate the
French with the other Settlements, but hitherto without
success. A revision of the Eeglements for the French
Concession has for some time been under consideration.
Meetings of ratepayers are held in February or March
of each year, at which the budgets are voted and the
new Councils instructed as to the policy they are to
pursue. No important measure is undertaken without
being referred to a special meeting of ratepayers. The
Council divides itself into Defence, Finance, Watch,
and Works Committee. This cosmopolitan system of
government has for many years worked so well and so
cheaply that Shanghai has fairly earned for itseK the
name of " The Modol Settlement."
SHANGHAI 103
Finances.
The Ordinary Eevenue of the " Anglo- American "
Settlement for 1898 amounted to Tls. 753,270.05 and
was derived as follows : —
Tl8.
Land Tax, five-tenths of 1 per cent 140,291.37
General Municipal Bates, Foreign Houses, 10
percent 94,071.57
General Municipal Kates, Native Houses, 10 per
cent 239,735.33
Wharfage Dues, including $14,000 Contribution
fromTaotai 69,900.75
Licences, principally vehicles and opium shops 209,271.03
753,270.05
The Ordinary Expenditure for the same year was
Tls. 753,098.86, and was divided among the different
departments as under : —
Tls.
Police Department 182,556.10
Sanitary Department, including Hospitals and
Markets 89,326.19
Lighting Tls. 46,798.53, Water supply Tls.
13,086.17 59,884.70
Public Works and Survey, including Garden,
Cemeteries, and outside roads 212,119.44
Land and Buildings 10,943.44, Stock and Stores
10,894.59 21,838.03
Secretariat, Legal, and General 68,382.75
Interest on Loans of 1888, '90, '91, '92, '93, '94,
'95, '96, '97, and '98, ^to 39,490.36
Volunteers Tls. 16,486.58, Fire Department Tls.
10,378.10, Band Tls. 7,636.61 34,501.29
Education Tls. 11,500.00, Museum Tls. 500,
Library Tls. 1000 13,000.00
Loans of 1888 and 1890 debentures paid ... 37,000.00
753,098.86
Debentures were issued during 1898, amounting to
Tls. 240,000, to which was added Tls. 4,735.90 surplus
on Ordinary Income and Expenditure in 1897 and
1898. Against this was expended for Public Works,
Tls. 40,047.85 ; for Koads and Bridges, Tls. 95,681.82,
for Police Stations and minor balance of cost of Market
and Drill Hall, Tls. 66,961.05, leaving a deficit of
Tls. 2,404.58 to Extraordinary Budget for 1899.
I04 CHINA
The Debt of the Municipality at the close of 1898
was Tls. 1,324,245.35 and the Assets were valued
at Tls. 1,439,365.75. The margin, Tls. 115,120.40,
may seem somewhat small, but the Municipality has
generally been able to procure at five per cent, as
much money as it has required. The loan of 1898
was, however, issued at six per cent.
The Ordinary Municipal Eevenue for 1899 was
estimated at Tls. 767,300 and the Ordinary Expendi-
ture at Tls. 763,610; the Extraordinary Revenue, to
be procured by the issue of Debentures, at Tls. 145,000
and the Extraordinary Expenditure at Tls. 144,605.
In 1898 the Land Tax and the rates on Foreign Houses
were each raised by 25 per cent.
The Eevenue of the French Concession for 1898
was Tls. 196,638.55. The sources from which it was
derived were : —
Tls.
Land Tax, four-tenths of 1 per cent 18,522.45
Foreign House Tax, 4 per cent 3,115.96
Native House Tax, 8 per cent 40,564.72
Licences, principally vehicles, brothels, and
opium shops 64,736.21
Cleaning and Lighting Rates and other Taxes 31,211.15
Paid by the Taotal and Bent of Quay s and Jetties 1 6,532.56
Miscellaneous including Tls. 10,954, Subscrip-
tions to Electric Light 21,955.20
196,638.55
The Expenditure of the French Municipality in
1897 amounted to Tls. 229,369.42 and was divided
as under : —
Tls.
Secretariat (Staff and General charges) ... 20,492.66
Public Works 116,946.60
Police Department 43,917.86
Water Supply Tls. 7,479.90, Lighting Tls.
15,520.53 23,000.43
Sanitary Tls. 3,799.58. Education Tls. 2,51 7.03 . . . 6,316.61
Volunteers, 3,100.74, Fire Brigade Tls. 2,820.00,
Band Tls. 1,500.00 7,420.74
Hospitals and Orphanage 2,477.00
Telegraphs, Telephones, Observatory, etc. ... 5,752.56
Miscellaneous Tls. 1,508.09, "Impr^vu" Tls.
1.511-27 8,044.96
229,869.42
SHANGHAI 105
The Eevenue and Expenditure for 1898 were each
estimated at Tls. 187,975.12.
Population.
The foreign population increased rapidly up to 1865,
but declined considerably during the next ten years.
The census of 1865 gave the number of foreign
residents in the three Settlements as 2757, army and
navy (British) 1851, shipping 981, a total of 5589. In
1870 the total in the Anglo-American Settlement was
1666; in 1876, 1673; in 1880, 2197; in 1885, 3673;
in 1890, 3821. By the census of 24th June, 1895,
there were in the Settlements north of the Yang-king-
pang a total of 4684 foreigners ; 1295 in the English
division, 2903 in Hongkew, 486 in outside roads and
Pootung. Of these 2068 were males, 1227 females,
and 1389 children, against 1086 males, 296 females,
and 291 children in 1876; and 1775 males, 1011
females, and 887 children, in 1885. The fluctuations
in the foreign population have been very remarkable.
Between 1870 and 1880 the number of adult males
decreased, while in the next five years it increased
by over fifty per cent. In the nine years, 1876 to
1885, the whole foreign population more than doubled,
but in the next five years it showed an increase of only
148, of whom 144 were children. The increase has
been greatest in Hongkew, where the population is
five times what it was in 1876, whereas that of the
British Settlement is less than in 1885. The foreign
population of the French Concession on the same day
of 1895 was 190 males, 78 females, and 162 children, a
total of 430 against 444 in 1890. A curious fact is
that of children under fifteen only 26 were males
while 136 were females. The proportion of different
nationalities in aU the Settlements was in 1895, 2002
British, 741 Portuguese, 399 German and Austrian,
357 American, 281 French, 154 Spanish, 89 Danish,
88 Italian, 82 Swedish and Norwegian, 31 Eussian,
I06 CHINA
111 of various other European nationalities, 322
Eurasians, 268 Japanese, 127 Indians, and 62 Manila-
men and other Asiatics. While the adult foreign male
population had increased only 61^ per cent, since
the census of 1870, the number of women had been
multiplied six and of children nine times. The calcu-
lated foreign population in 1898 was 5240. These
figures do not include the population afloat, which at
the date of the last census was 1306, against 1009 in
1890 and 893 in 1885. Although the Chinese have
no right of residence within the Foreign Settlement,
and indeed were expressly prohibited by the original
Land Eegulations, some 20,000 sought refuge within
the boundaries from the rebels in 1854, and when the
city was besieged by the Taipings in 1860 there were,
it is said, at least 500,000 natives within the Settle-
ments. As they found some amenities from " squeez-
ing" when under the protection of foreigners, and
foreigners themselves being able to obtain a much
higher rental for their land, and finding native house
property a very profitable investment, no opposition
was made to their residence. In 1870 there were in
the three Settlements 75,047 ; in 1880, 107,812 ; in
1890, 168,129. The numbers by the last census (June,
1895) were, in the British Settlement 116,204, in
Hongkew 103,102, in Foreign Hongs in both Settle-
ments 6991, villages and huts within the limits 8429,
in shipping and boats 6269, total 240,995 ; an increase
of 43 J per cent, in five years. The calculated native
population in 1898 was 317,000. The native population
of the French Concession on the same date in 1895 was
45,758, against 34,722 in 1890, and the boat population
about 6000 ; say a total for the three Settlements and
afloat of about 293,000, more than half of whom are
adult males. Tlie population is estimated to have
increased at the rate of twenty per cent, annually since
the date of last census, notwithstanding that rents have
risen from thirty to sixty and, in some cases, even one
hundred per cent., and that provisions and cost of living
SHANGHAI 107
generally, both of natives and foreigners, has greatly
increased. The majority are immigrants from other
provinces who followed in the wake of foreigners
attracted by the high wages paid to skilled and un-
skilled labour required for the B^ny industries. The
population of the native city is supposed to be about
125,000. The large congregation of natives in the
Settlements and the outlying roads is kept in
admirable order by a Police force of 90 Europeans,
153 Indians, and 550 natives for the north of the
Yang-king-pang, and 42 Europeans and 71 natives
for the French Concession, or about one constable for
every 600 inhabitants. As the natives have to be
tried by their own avithorities, and bribery doubtless
works its effects in Shanghai as elsewhere in China,
the difiBiculties of organising and efficiently working
such a small force are considerable. In few places
are life and property more secure. In August, 1899,
the Captain Superintendent stated that twenty-four
hours had passed without one defaulter being reported,
a unique police experience for any city of its population
in the world.
Climate.
The climate of Shanghai is generally allowed to be
fairly healthy. The death-rate amongst foreigners
ashore and afloat during the past two decades has
ranged from 16.4 per thousand (in 1897) to 30.8 per
thousand (in 1881). The rate in 1898 was 16.7 per
thousand. Partial outbreaks of cholera have occurred
at intervals, but the larger proportion of the cases were
among the ships in harbour. The highest recorded
number of deaths from this cause among foreigners was
32, in 1890. Of these, 11 were amongst residents. In
1892, 1893, 1894, 1897, and 1898 there were no deaths
from cholera among foreign residents. There were 20
deaths in 1895, 11 of residents, and 10 in 1896, 3 of
residents, from this disease. The highest number of
Io8 CHINA
deaths of foreigners from sraall-pox was 19 in 1896,
of whom 8 were residents. There were two deaths of
foreigners from this cause in 1897, and two in 1898.
In winter cases of small-pox and typhoid are frequent
among the natives. Amongst the shore population the
death-rate was 162 per thousand in 1898, and has
varied, so far as can be estimated in the absence of an
annual census, from 25 per thousand in 1880 to 14.5
per thousand in 1884 and 1897, a rate which compares
favourably with that of large towns in Europe. The
Health Officer in a late report says that " out of the 75
deaths registered there were but nine which can in any
sense be termed climatic." The Chinese authorities
reported 3129 deaths amongst the natives in the
"Anglo-American Settlement" in 1898, which would
make the rate about 9.87 per thousand, but that is
without doubt very greatly under the real proportion ;
928 deaths of natives were registered as from cholera
in 1895, 18 in 1896, and 2 in 1897. and none in 1898,
and from small-pox 138 in 1895, 316 in 1896, 02 in
1897, and 63 in 1898. The thermometer ranges from
25 deg. to 103 deg. Fahrenheit, the mean of eight years
having been 59.2 deg. ; winter being 39.1, spring 50.9,
summer 78.2, and autumn 62.6. Shanghai approaches
nearest to Eome in mean temperature, while the
winter temperature of London and Shanghai are almost
identical. In October and November there is generally
dry, clear, and delightful weather, equal to that found
in any part of the world ; but when the winter has
fairly set in the north-east winds are extremely cold
and biting. On January 17th, 1878, the river was
frozen over at Woosung. The heat during July and
August is sometimes excessive, but generally lasts
only a few days at a time. In late }'oars very severe
gales have become more frequent. The mean of the
barometer in 1898 ^^•as 30.01 inches. The annual
average of rainy days in Shanghai during eight years
was 124, the annual rainfall 32.464 inches; 55 wet
days occurred in winter, and 69 in summer; the
SHANGHAI 109
heaviest shower was on the 24th October, 1875, when
7 inches fell in 2>\ hours. Earthquakes occasionally
occur, but have not been known to inflict any serious
injury.
Description.
The streets of the English and French Settlements all
run north and south and east and west, mostly for the
whole length of both Settlements, crossing each other at
right angles. They were when first laid out twenty-
two feet wide, but have since, at very great expense,
been mostly made much wider. Notwithstanding the
soft nature of the soil, they are now kept in remark-
ably good order, at least the main thoroughfares. The
Municipal Council now leases a stone quarry at
Pingchiao, in Chekiang, about 150 miles south-west
of Shanghai, from which they obtain about 1700 tons
per year of the best stone for road-making. Owing to
the nature of the ground, expensive piling or concrete
foundations are necessary before any foreign building
can be erected, and all stone has to be brought from
a long distance. The Soochow Creek, between the
English Settlement and Hongkew, is now crossed by
seven bridges, four of which are adapted for carriage
traffic, and the French concession is connected with the
other Settlement by eight bridges crossing the Yang-
king-pang. It is proposed to culvert and fill in this
Creek, and to make a broad thoroughfare along its line.
A report on the scheme is being drawn up. There are
several good driving- roads extending into the country,
two leading to Sicawei, a distance of about six miles,
and one to Jessfield by the banks of the Soochow Creek,
for five mUes. Another broad thoroughfare, Yangtsepoo
Road, runs by the side of the river for five miles, which
is intended ultimately to extend to Woosung. The
termini of Jessfield Eoad and Yangtsepoo Eoad now
mark the limits in their separate directions of the
Foreign Settlement. Several other roads have been
proposed, but, although foreigners are prepared to pay
no CHINA
high prices for the land, the opposition of the ofi&cials
has hitherto prevented their construction. Now, how-
ever, by the granting of the extension of the Settlements,
the Municipal Council has the right to build and police
roads in certain adjacent districts. At the time the
Taipings approached Shanghai, some roads for the
passage of artillery were made by the British military
authorities at the expense of the Chinese Government,
one of them extending for seventeen miles into the
country; but, excepting those close to the Settlement,
they have now been turned into ploughed fields. The
foreshore in front of the Settlement has been reclaimed,
raised, turfed, and planted with shrubs, and forms a
delightful and spacious promenade. The trees planted
some years ago having now attained a good height, and
several more imposing buildings having been completed,
the English and French Bunds form as magnificent a
boulevard as any in the East.
Many foreign houses, nearly all of them with several
mow of garden ground, have been, and more are still
being, erected near the outside roads, especially on the
Bubbling Well, Sicawei, and Sinza Koads, which are the
main outlets from the Settlement, and from which most
of the other roads branch off. These roads are planted
with trees on both sides, forming fine avenues of about
five miles in length. A small but well laid-out and
admirably kept Public Garden was formed about 1868,
on land recovered from the river in front of the British
Consulate. It has been considerably extended in area
by reclaiming the foreshore. A general Public Garden,
intended for Chinese, eight maw in extent, by the bank
of the Soochow Creek, was opened in December, 1890.
There is a public conservatory well stocked with flowers
and ferns. A Park, measuring 36-i by 216 feet, is laid
out in Hongkew. The Public Kecreation Ground has
also been thoroughly drained, turfed, and laid-out, in
spaces not devoted to sport, with flower-beds. These
arc all under the care of a public gardener, secured from
Kew (tardens, in 1899.
SHANGHAI 1 1 1
Immeuse sums have been wasted in various attempts
to drain the Settlements, principally from the want of
skilled direction ; but the great difficulties in this matter,
arising from the lowlying and level nature of the ground,
have now been fairly overcome, though much yet remains
to be done. The Settlements are well provided with
telegraphic fire-alarms. The desire of the Municipal
Councils to keep the monopoly in their own hands
retarded for many years the inauguration of water-
works, but a public company is now established,
which furnishes a continuous supply of filtered water
at moderate rates. A separate system of waterworks
for the French Concession is being inaugurated, and
the Chinese waterworks, to supply the native city,
were completed in September, 1899. The electric
light was introduced in 1882, and 141 arc-lamps are
erected on the principal thoroughfares and wharves.
In 1893 the Municipality purchased the property and
business of the Electric Company, but the administra-
tion of the Electric Light Department has not given
entire satisfaction, and in 1899 the Municipal Council
advertised for tenders for the purchase of its plant and
the introduction of a private service. The French
Municipality has an excellent electric-light service,
and the native Bund is lighted by a Chinese Electric
Light Company.
Shanghai can boast of several fine buildings of various
and varied styles of architecture. Trinity Cathedral,
erected from a design by Sir Gilbert Scott, is said to be
one of the finest specimens of modern ecclesiastical
architecture to be found out of Europe. The foundation
stone was laid on 16th May, 1866, and the church was
opened for public worship on 1st August, 1869. It is
Gothic of the thirteenth century, 152 feet long, 58^ feet
wide, and 54 feet from the floor to the apex of the nave.
The structure was not comj)leted, however, until 1892,
when the spire was erected, the cross being placed on
the top on the 4th October of that year. It attains a
total height of 160 feet, and, like the body of the edifice.
1 1 2 CHINA
i3 built of red brick, with stone dressings. The founda-
tion of the spire was laid by the Bishop of Mid-China
on the 19th August, 1891. There is a fine Eoman
Catholic Church in the French Concession called St.
Joseph's, built in 1862, and another in Hongkew
known as the Church of the Sacred Heart. There
are also the Union Church on the Soochow Creek, a
handsome church with spire and beUs in Yunnan
Eoad, belonging to the American Methodist Episcopal
Mission, a chapel belonging to the London Mission,
and one to the American Episcopalians, and a very
pretty and prettily situated Seamen's Church at
Pootung (latterly disused except for the purposes
of a mortuary), besides several mission chapels for
natives. The Jesuit Fathers have an extensive
mission establishment and orphanages at Sicawei,
where a mission has existed for over a hundred
years. The present church was built in 1851. To
this mission is attached a museum of natural history,
etc., and an astronomical and meteorological observatory.
In connection with the latter there is a time-ball on
the French Bund, and the Fathers hope to introduce
Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy between Sicawei,
Shanghai, and Woosung for signalling purposes. Under
the direction of this institution, a complete system of
meteorological observations, embracing the whole of the
China Seas, is now carried out. The Shanghai Club
occupies a large and elaborate building at one end of
the English Bund. It cost Tls. 120,000, and at that is
said to have ruined three contractors. It was opened
in 1864, and has passed through a varied and peculiar
history. The present buildings of the British Consulate
and Supreme Court at the other end of the Bund were
opened in 1873. Near to them there is a fine Masonic
Hall recently rebuilt. Amongst the other conspicuous
buildings may be mentioned those occupied by the
Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, the
Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China, and
the Imperial Cliinese Eailway Administration. The
SHANGHAI 1 1 3
Lyceum Theatre, situate in Museum Eoad, is a fair
building, seating 700 persons, opened in January, 1874.
The members of the German (Concordia) Club have also
a handsome little theatre attached to their premises in
the Canton Eoad. A new Custom House was completed
in 1893 on the site of the old building on the Bund. It
is in the Tudor style, of red brick with facings of green
Ningpo stone, and has high-pitched roofs covered with
red JVench tiles. The buildings have a frontage on the
Bund of 135 feet, and on the Hankow Eoad of 155 feet.
In the centre of the main building a clock tower, supplied
with a four-faced clock striking the Westminster chimes,
rises to a height of 110 feet, and divides the structure
into two wings. The elevation is a very handsome one.
Mr. John Chambers was the architect, and the new
building adds an imposing feature to the Bund. Another
fine building is the Central Police Station in Foochow
Eoad, large and spacious, of red brick with stone
dressings, but lacking frontage and surrounding space
to set it off to its full advantage. The new Town Hall
and Public Markets were completed in 1899, and form
the first block of buildings erected out of public funds
for the public use. They occupy a prominent site,
which is bounded by four roads ; the principal front
being upon the Nanking Eoad, the main thoroughfare
of the English Settlement. The plan divides the block
into two portions, the moiety facing Nanking Eoad
being for use by the European community as a Town
Hall and Market, and the portion in rear as a Chinese
Market. This latter is an airy, open building 156 feet
by 140 feet, two stories high, constructed entirely of iron
and steel with concrete floors and a roof glazed in such
a manner as to admit the north light only. A four-way
staircase connects the two floors and is surmounted by
an octagonal dome 40 feet diameter. The front building
is of red brick with stone dressings. The lower floor
consists of the European market 156 feet by 80 feet,
and an arcade 156 feet by 45 feet employed for the
same purpose. A special and striking feature of the
I
114 CHINA
building is the handsome staircase, entered from
Nanking Eoad, and leading to the Town HaU on
the first floor. The walls and arches of this staircase
are finished in clean red brickwork with stone dressings,
the steps being of concrete with stone handrails and
balusters, and encaustic tile floors to halls and landings.
The Town Hall is also used by the Shanghai Volunteers
for drill purposes. It presents an imposing appearance,
being 156 feet long, 80 wide, and 26 feet high to the
tie-beams of roof, a massively timbered gallery crossing
one end. The floor is of teak laid on steel joists and
concrete. The open timbered roof is ceiled under the
purlins almost up to the apex, with ribbed panels. The
windows are of cathedral glass, and the joinery and dado
in this room are of polished teak. It is heated by large
American stoves, and special attention has been given
to the ventilation. Adjoining this Hall are other large
rooms used for public meetings, a Volunteers' Club, and
other purposes. The buildings are lighted throughout
by incandescent electric lights, the Town Hall having
six 300 candle-power incandescent lamps, besides the
numerous side lights. The whole of the buildings form
an effective group, although the narrowness of the streets
on the East and West sides considerably detracts from
the possibility of obtaining a good view of tlie block.
They took about eighteen months to erect, and have
been built from the designs and under the superin-
tendence of Mr. C. Mayne, c.E., the Municipal Engineer,
and Mr. F. M. Gratton, f.e.i.b.a., of the firm of Morrison
and Gratton of Shanghai, as joint architects and
engineers. A New Mixed Court, an imposing structure,
was completed in 1899, and took the place of the dis-
reputable building formerly used. A monument to tlie
memory of Mr. A. 1>. Margary, of the British Consular
service, who was murdered by Chinese in Yunnan, was
unveiled in June, 1880, and a statue of the late Sir
Harry Parkes, British Minister to Peking, was erected
in 1890. A bronze monument, in memory of the heroic
death of the crew of the German gunboat IWn, lost in a
SHANGHAI 115
typhoon off the coast of Shantung, on 25th July, 1896,
was erected on the Bund, at the end of the Peking Eoad,
in N'ovember, 1898. The principal buildings on the
French Concession are the Municipal Hall and the
Consulate. A bronze statue of Admiral Protet, who
was killed when directing an attack on Nan-yao on
17th May, 1862, stands in front of the Municipal Hall.
The Public Markets of the French Concession are large
and well built, and are perfect as regards sanitary
arrangements.
Institutions.
Among the institutions of the place may be men-
tioned the Volunteer Defence Force, consisting of Field
Artillery, Light Horse, and three Eifle Companies —
one of which is German — and a Naval Company, the
latter formed in 1898. Originally formed in 1861, it
gradually went to decay, until the fear of attack after
the Massacre at Tientsin in 1870 caused its revival with
considerable vigour. It again dwindled in numbers,
but the last re-organisation under Major HoUiday
proved successful, there being now over three hundred
members, almost all of whom are effective. This is
exclusive of the Home Guard and Band. The infantry
is armed with the Lee-Metford rifle. A separate
Company of Volunteers under the order of the French
Consul-General was formed in May, 1897. The Fire
Brigade, which is entirely volunteer, with a paid
departmental Engineer, consists of four Engine and one
Hook and Ladder Companies. It is pronounced to be
.one of the most efficient volunteer brigades in the
world. There is a Hospital for foreigners, the building
for which, although only completed in 1877, is already
found inadequate, and several additions have been
made. A Municipal Nursing Home with trained
nurses also exists. There are also several Hospitals
for natives, and three Municipal Hospitals for infectious
diseases, and a Municipal Laboratory where vaccine
Il6 CHINA
and serum are prepared. The other public institutions
may be enumerated as, a Subscription Library contain-
ing about 20,000 volumes, a branch of the Koyal
Asiatic Society, with the nucleus of a Museum, a
Masonic Club, a Sailors' Home, a Polytechnic Institu-
tion for Chinese, a Seamen's Library and Museum, a
Wind Instrument Band, paid by the Municipality,
which gives concerts in the Public Gardens every day
during the summer months, a Eace Club, possessing a
course of a mile and a quarter, a Country Club on the
Bubbling Well Eoad, Parsee, Portuguese, and Customs
Clubs, also Pony Paper Hunt, Cricket, Eifle, Yacht,
Baseball, Eacquet, Golf, Skating, Football, Swimming,
and various other Clubs, Philharmonic and Choral
Societies, English and French Amateur Dramatic
Societies, and other institutions for amusement and re-
creation. There ar^en or eleven Masonic bodies, with
over 500 membets.^^ 1876 a District Grand Lodge
for North China was constituted, with Shanghai as its
headquarters.
iNDUSTRIEa
There are five docks at Shanghai. The one at
Tungkadoo, opposite the city, has a length of 380 feet
over all, with a depth at spring tides of 21 feet ; the
Old Dock at Hongkew is 400 feet long and 18 feet deep
at springs ; Messrs. Boyd & Co.'s New Dock at
Pootung, at the low» end of the harbour, measures
450 feet on the blocks, 50 feet wide at bottom and 134
at top, is 80 feet wide at entrance between pierheads,
with a depth at highwater spriiigs of 22 feet; the
works connected with this dock cover an area of
16 acres. Farnham's "Cosmopolitan" Dock, on the
Pootung side about a mile below harbour limits, is 560
feet long on blocks, and 82 feet wide at entrance. A
Company was formed in 1896 to build a fifth and lai^er
dock, which is now in use and termed the Oriental
Dock. All steamers and most sailing vessels now
SHANGHAI 1 1 7
discharge and load at the various public and private
wharves. The premises of the Associated Wharf
Companies have a frontage of about three-quarters of a
mile. The Chinese Government has an Arsenal, Dock,
and shipbuilding establishment at Kaou Chang Miao, a
short distance above the native city. It commenced as
a small rifle-factory in 1867. The Great Northern
Telegraph Company's cable was laid to Shanghai in
1871, and that of the Eastern Extension Company in
1884, there being now three distinct lines of communi-
cation with Europe. An overland line to Tientsin was
opened in December, 1881, subsequently extended to
Peking, and in 1894 connected with the Eussian land
lin^s through Siberia to Europe. There is also a line
west to Kashgar, and south as far as Laokay on the
Yunnan border, there connecting with the French
Tonkin lines and to Bhamo, connecting with the
Burmah line. A railway constructed by a foreign
company was opened to Woosung in June, 1876, but
after running for sixteen months it was purchased and
taken up by the Chinese Authorities. During the
short time it was running the passenger traffic alone
covered the working expenses, leaving sufficient profit
to pay a small dividend. Towards the close of 1895
consent was given by the Throne for the construction
by the provincial authorities of a line of railway from
Shanghai to Soochow, a distance of about eighty miles.
This is now in course of construction, the portion
between Shanghai and Woosung having been opened to
traffic on 1st September, 1898. The extension of the
line from the present Woosung terminus, across the
creek into Woosung proper, is now being made, the final
terminus to be Princess Wharf, iiHHie'diately adjoining
the old forts. The Shanghai terminus is too far from
the Settlement to permit of the lines being of much use
in handling cargo from Woosung. The line is to be
extended to Chinkiang and Nanking. A scheme for
Tramways in the Settlements has often been put for-
ward, but so late as 1896 was refused sanction by the
I r 8 CHINA
ratepayers, which, however, was given at the annual
meeting in March, 1898, and in 1899 tenders were
advertised for. There are five locally owned lines of
steamers running on the coast and the Eiver Yangtsze.
Many manufactories under both native and foreign
auspices have sprung up of late years, and would have
done so in large numbers long ago had it not been that
the native authorities offered strong opposition to any
manufactures under the control of foreigners, and pre-
vented the importation of foreign machinery. Although
the right under the Treaty to import machinery is
quite clear, the British Government hesitated to enforce
it; but the Japanese, in the treaty of 1895 which
closed the war, obtained the insertion of a clause
specially authorising its importation. The consequence
is that five cotton-spinning and weaving companies
have been floated, one under the auspices of Messrs.
Jardine, Matheson & Co., one under those of the
American Trading Company, one under the manage-
ment of Messrs. Ilbert & Co., one by Messrs.
Amhold, Karberg & Co., and one by Messrs. Fearon,
Daniel & Co., which have built mills of from 40,000
to 60,000 spindles each. With the number of mills
working and others in course of construction, the place
is rapidly assuming the appearance of a thriving district
in Lancashire. At the close of 1898 there were nine
Cotton Mills in operation, with about 167,000 spindles,
and four Chinese owned, with about 146,000 spindles.
It is probable, however, that not more than an average
of 60 to 70 per cent, of the foreign-owned spindles were
at work at one time, taking slack and busy periods
together. Approaching Shanghai from "Woosung, the
extensive mills of the Shanghai Cotton Cloth Adminis-
tration (a native-owned business) meet the eye — the
old premises were destroyed by fire in 1893, and the
present buildings were completed in 1895. These mills
were the first erected in Shanghai, and the ex-viceroy,
Li Hung-chang, has a considerable interest in them.
Above these on the riverside are the mills of Ilbert &
SHANGHAI 119
Co., Jardine, Matheson & Co., and Arnhold, Karberg
& Co., referred to above ; while on the opposite or
Pootung shore stands the large and busy mill of the
International Cotton Manufacturing Co. There are
also a number of ginning factories, foreign and native
owned. Much of this cleaned cotton is exported to
Japan. Of Silk Filatures Shanghai has 25, with a
total of 8000 basins, of which five were foreign managed.
In 1898 few worked to the full extent of their capacity,
and many only very intermittently. The export in
1895 was 6276 bales of one picul (133^ lbs. each),
5293 piculs in 1896, and 11,429 piculs in 1897. One
only of these Filatures is the property of a private firm,
the others being owned by Foreign or Chinese Com-
panies. These Filatures, which give employment to
20,000 Natives, are scattered over the Hongkew and
Sinza districts, with the exception of a large one of 300
basins at Jessfield — the Hing Chong Filature. Of other
industries we may note Feather-Cleaning Factories,
Hydraulic Packing Factories, a native-owned Paper
Mill, two Chinese-owned Match Factories, turning out
between them some 80 cases, containing each 100 gross
of boxes per day. A large Flour Mill (for grinding
wheat, which it is said makes excellent flour), two
Kerosene Tank Oil and Tinning establishments and
works, and various other industries, which are fast
increasiag in number. Shanghai bids fair to soon out-
rival Bombay as the largest manufacturing centre in
Asia.
The " Astor House " in Hongkew, the " Central " in
the British, and the " Hotel des Colonies " in the
French Concession, besides many second-class houses,
give hotel accommodation equal to that of any port in
the East. There are five daily newspapers, the North
China Daily News, Shanghai Daily Press, and L'Echo
de Chine, morning; the Shanghai Mercury and the
China Gazette, evening ; also four weeklies, the Ostasi-
atische Lloyd, North China Herald, Celestial Empire,
and The Union. There are four native daily papers,
1 20 CHINA
the 8him-pao, the Hurpao, the Sinrwcm-pao, and the
Umveraal Gazette, the latter representing the Eeform
movement. These are sold at the prices of ten and
eight cash, equal to about a farthing. Some of them
have a circulation of 10,000 per day. In one matter,
that of postal accommodation, Shanghai is perhaps over-
supplied, there being British, French, American, Japa-
nese, German, Eussian.and Imperial Chinese Post-offices.
The latter was organised by and is at present being con-
ducted under the auspices of the Maritime Customs. The
Municipal Local Post was in 1898 incorporated with it.
It undertakes the transmission of small sums of money
and accepts the registration of letters. It will probably
be some years before the difficulties inevitable in a
country like China are overcome, and foreigners are,
justly or unjustly, doubtful as to the inviolability of
their correspondence. It is understood that China will
apply for admission to the Postal Union. Shanghai
was made a port of Eegistry for British ships in 1874.
All foreign hongs and even private houses have to give
themselves fancy Chinese names, by which only they
are known to the natives. The system is, however,
■found to have its conveniences. No less than 4308
jinrickshas, 4379 passenger and cargo-wheelbarrows,
701 ponies, and 543 horse-carriages ply for hire in the
Settlements, besides large numbers outside.
The currency of Shanghai is the tael weight (equal
to one and a third ounces avoirdupois) of silver cast
into " shoes " of fifty taels, more or less. The foreign
banks issue notes of the value of one dollar and upwards
for both taels and dollars. Smaller transactions are
conducted in clean Mexican dollars, smaller subsidiary
provincial silver coins and copper cash. There are
eight foreign and numerous native banks in the Settle-
ment. In 1896 the Imperial Chinese Bank, under
Chinese and European management, was opened by
Imperial Decree.
SHANGHAI 1 2 1
Trade and Commekce.
Shanghai is the great emporium for the trade of the
Yangtsze and Northern and Corean ports, and to some
extent for Japan. The total import and export trade
of 1868 amounted to sixty-five million taels. It
steadily increased each year until 1881, when it reached
Hk. Tls. 141,921,357, but afterwards showed a great
decline, the total for 1884 having been twenty per cent,
less than that of 1881. There has since, however, been
a rapid recovery, the total trade in foreign bottoms,
import and export, for the last eight years, as given by
the Customs Statistical Department, being : —
Hk. Tls.
1891. 165,643,863 at Ex. 1.53 Mex. $263,282,109 at Ex. 4s. lid., £40,696,199
1892. 166,827,502 „ 1.54 „ $256,914,353 „ 4s. 4id., £36,319,946
1893. 177,017,836 „ 1.54 „ §272,607,467 „ 3«. llilJ., £34,860,386
1894. 195,622,371 „ 1.61 „ $295,389,780 „ 3>. 2{<2., £31,279,202
1895. 218,733,283 „ 1.53 „ $334,661,923 „ 3s. Sid., £35,772,006
1896. 226,912,516 „ 1.53 „ $347,176,149 „ 3s. 4d., £37,818,752
1897. 265,678,990 „ 1.50 „ $398,618,485 „ 2s. lljd., £39,575,099
1898. 261,205,837 „ 1.51 „ $379,320,814 „ 2s. lOJd.. £36,241,776
The quantity of foreign Opium imported recently
declined much owing to increased production of and
demand for the native drug, the quality of which is
now much superior to formerly, and the taxes very
much lighter than on that of foreign growth. The
import of 1898, 30,229 piculs, showed however an
increase of 2700 piculs over that of 1897. The import
of the native drug in 1895, as shown by the Foreign
Customs returns, reached 10,413 piculs, or more than
four times that of 1893. In 1898 it declined to 7850
piculs owing to short crops and greater demand inland.
But it must be borne in mind that the great bulk of
the native-grown opium which enters Shanghai does
not come under the Maritime Customs supervision.
An export of the native growth to foreign countries
has now commenced. Owing to the increased silver
cost the import of Cotton Goods and Yarn, which for
several years had shown an annual increase in quantity
of over 25 per cent., fell greatly in 1893, but subse-
122 CHINA
quently recovered in the year 1896, showing the
astonishing increase of 52f per cent, in value over its
immediate predecessor. From 64^ million taels in
1896 it fell to 55 millions in 1898. Shirtings and
Drills from America now largely outnumber those of
English make, for the reason, it is alleged, that freight
from America is much lower than from England. The
quantity of imported WooUens slowly increased till
1896, when the import was over 57 per cent, greater
than in 1895. As with Cottons, this could not be
maintained, 1897 showing a decline of 14 per cent, and
1898 of 39 per cent, on that of 1897. Metals imported
fluctuated by not more than ten per cent, during each
year of the decade, increasing by an average of about
five per cent, per annum till, as with most other foreign
imports, there was a remarkable rise in 1896, the value
in that year being 44f per cent, greater than in 1895 ;
1897 showed a decline of 20 per cent, and 1898 a rise
of 23 per cent. The import of Kerosene Oil was
42,821,383 gallons in 1896, 67,359,323 in 1897, and
69,056,545 in 1898. American declined in 1895 to
less than half of the import in 1894, namely, from 36^
to 16 miUion gallons, but has increased each year since,
reaching over 42 millions in 1898, while Russian case-
oil increased from 4 million gallons in 1894 to 17o in
1897, but fell to 8 millions in 1898, and Russian tank-
oil increased from 3 in 1894 to 7.41 million gallons in
1897, falling to 5.49 in 1898. The quantity of Sumatra
Oil 13i million gallons ; all in bulk, imported in 1898
was double that of the previous year. The importation
of Sugar, which was 247,894 piculs in 1892, rose to a
million and a qiaarter in 1894, and has remained about
the same since, being 1,138,152 piculs in 1898, of this
514,994 piculs was refined, almost entirely from Hong-
kong. Of coal more than half a million tons were
imported in 1898, of which 476,000 came from Japan.
The export of native produce to foreign countries
aggregated over 78 million taels, an increase of 23J
millions on the 1896 total, wliich fell to 69 million
SHANGHAI
12'
taels in 1898. The articles in which the falling off
occurred were chiefly Eaw Cotton, Filature Silk, Tea,
and Straw Braid, all of which had, however, been ex-
ported to an abnormal extent in the previous year.
The unprecedented prices asked for raw cotton, and
great deterioration in the quality of filature silk and of
strawbraid, were the causes of the decline in the export
of these goods. Eaw Silk increased from 48,472 piculs
in 1896 to 63,979 in 1897, and 65,133 in 1898. The
net import of silver fell from 36.6 million taels in 1895
to 6.6 in 1896, and to 4 million in 1897, but rose to
9 million in 1898, there being over ten million taels
worth of silver bars brought from Japan. The net
export of gold has considerably increased in recent
years, having been 6.85 million taels in 1895, 7.2 in
1896, 8.67 in 1897, and 851 miUion taels in 1898.
The following tables show the export of Tea and Silk
for six years : —
Tea— Black. Brick.
Green.
1893. ...
Piculs 281,339 353,910
234,072
1894. ...
„ 304,26'
r 338,028
230,215
1895. ...
„ 358,631
I 412,694
240,689
1896. ...
151,850 175,398
217,425
1897. ...
„ 261,16(
; 507,039
204,358
1898. ...
„ 320,994
\ 466,421
185,880
Silk.
Wild. Waste.
Cocoons.
1893. ...
Piculs 57,674
6,034 40,628
6,887
1894. ...
„ 60,657
9,909 48,191
6,703
1895. ...
„ 68,384
10,065 37,743
7,973
1896. ...
„ 46,329
9,487 25,877
7,939
1897. ...
„ 64,914
12,166 33,900
8,845
1898. ...
„ 56,605
11,737 41,726
6,795
The import
trade in Foreign Goods for 1898 may be
summarised as
i follows : —
Hk. Tl8.
Hk. Tls.
From Great Britain 32,814,335
From British America 1,940,914
From Hongkong
... 27,625,216
From Straits and Aus-
From India
... 18,943,142
tralia
... 1,787.497
From United States 16,057,183
From other Countries 1,654,392
From Japan and For-
From Chinese Ports... 525,216
mosa
... 15,808,048
Prom Continent
of
Total Hk. Tls.
... 127,156,897
Europe ...
... 10,000,954
124
CHINA
The following were the values of the principal
classes of Foreign Goods imported during that year : —
Cotton Goods
Cotton Yam
Opium
Kerosine Oil
Metals
Sugar
Coal
Woollen Goods
Ginseng
Cotton (Eaw)
Machinery
Dyes and Colours . . .
Tobacco, Cigars, etc.
Seaweed
Wine, Beer, Spirits
Sandalwood
Leather and Leather
Goods
Timber
Matches
Soap
Railway Plant, etc.
Hk. Tl9.
35,375,318
19,991,195
17,581,710
8,353,160
7,083,568
5,593,448
4,107,870
2,400,431
1.561,059
1,361,000
1,306,522
1,056,150
783,178
744,456
680,217
671,883
650,796
625,896
601,843
542,863
535,395
Hk.Tl8.
Bice
.. 510,223
Glass and Glassware
.. 483,029
Beche de Mer ...
.. 458,716
Needles
.. 448,722
Birds' Nests ...
.. 404,893
Household Stores
.. 401,301
Sharks' Fins ...
.. 375,010
Cement
.. 369,464
Mats and Matting
.. 356,120
Bags
.. 285,908
Paper
.. 282,300
Medicines
.. 266,651
Silk and Silk GoodB
.. 262,996
Clocks and Watches
.. 247,421
Stationery
.. 236,610
Flour
.. 226,491
Indigo
.. 212,051
Horns
.. 203,380
Sundries
.. 9,517,653
Total Hk. Tls. ... 127,156,897
Of the total an amount to the value of Haikwan Tls.
97,730,387 was re-exported ; namely, to the Yangtsze
ports Hk. Tls. 43,400,556, to the Northern ports, in-
cluding Port Arthur, Weihaiwei, and Kiaochow Hk.
Tls. 38,530,001, to Ningpo and Southern ports Hk. Tls.
10,833,164, to Eussian Manchuria Hk. Tls. 1,373,389,
to Corea Hk. Tls. 1,573,064, to Japan Hk. Tls.
1,105,493, to Hongkong Hk. Tls. 688,143, to Continent
of Europe, Russia excepted, Hk. Tls. 28,650, to Great
Britain Hk. Tls. 84,564, and to other Foreign Countries
Hk. Tls. 108,363, leaving a balance for local consump-
tion and stock of Hk. Tls. 29,426,510.
Imports to the value of Tls. 2,395,704 were sent to
the interior under Transit Passes.
Native Produce to the value of Hk, Tls. 76,090,915
was imported in foreign vessels ; namely, from Yang-
tsze Ports, Tls. 44,981,483, from Northern Ports, Tls.
15,791,918, from Southern Ports, Tls. 15,317,514, almost
SHANGHAI
125
all of which was re-exported, the net native imports
amounting to Hk. Tls. 11,259,760.
The total values of Exports and Ke-exports of Native
Produce to Foreign Countries, Hongkong, and Chinese
ports in 1898 were : —
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Silk
29,348,659
Opium
1,050,921
Tea
15,376,151
Nutgalls
843,276
Silk Manufactures
8,866,562
Rice
794,051
Cotton, Raw
6,362,658
„ (Free)
194,376
Cotton Goods and
„ (Tribute)
2,510,807
Yarn
3,615,717
Books, Printed
759,469
Hides and Horns ...
3,296,043
Bristles
759,108
Straw Braid
3,063,448
Musk
668,818
Furs and Fur Bugd
3,060,115
Ground Nuts
576,070
Tobacco
2,821,302
Fungus
570,229
Cloth and Nankins
2,625,198
Rhubarb
508,054
OiU (Vegetable) ...
2,431,473
Grass Cloth
504,914
Beans^and Beancakea
2,191,358
Varnish
469,957
Paper"
2,160,381
Pottery
437,887
Wool
1,401,903
Vermicelli and Maca
Chinaware
1,595,952
roni
429,247
Seeds
1,246,018
Feathers
391,185
Sugar
1,146,903
Sundries
7,436,860
Medicines
1,131,605
Hemp
1,072,354
Total Hk. Tls. ..
112,789,180
Wax
1,070,151
Of this amount there was
> sent to —
Hk. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Continent of Europe
26,964,550
British America
... 356,593
United States and
Other Foreign Countries 72,012
MnTii1xiri/i n Talani^a
10,975,853
. 8,546,020
Great Britain
To Foreign Countries 69,084,804
Japan
. 8,140,826
Hongkong
. 8,006,972
Northern Ports
23,998,711
Bussian Manchuria ,.
. 2,488,214
Southern Ports
12,270,439
India and Burmah ..
. 1,296,386
Yangtsze Ports
7,435,226
Persia, Egypt, etc. ..
. 1,005,133
Corea
. 828,724
To Chinese Ports,
Straits and Australia
403,521
Hk. Tls.
43,704,376
The goods for export brought down under Transit
Passes amounted to Tls. 2,843,181, almost all of which
was Eefuse Silk and Cocoons. This was a decrease of
Tls. 139,670 from that of 1897.
The total Carrying Trade, entrances and clearances,
126
CHINA
for the year 1898, was divided amongst the different
flags as under : —
SteamerB.
Tonnage. Sailing. Tonnage.
Total.
Tonnage.
Duties.
Tls.
BritlBli
2,989
4,300,536
127
197,742
3,116
4,498,278
3,744,159
Japanese
698
676,663
4
170
602
676,833
371,940
German
383
605,392
7
11,710
390
516,463
1,125,834
French ..
117
226,108
—
117
226,108
404,592
Swedish and Nor-
wegian
133
137,713
—
133
137,713
90,931
American
46
116,158
43
43,292
89
169,450
76,278
Bussian
42
83,372
4
672
46
81,044
35,348
Danish, Dutch, etc
62
58,029
5
4,624
57
62,653
49,065
Austrian
16
44,936
_.
~.
16
44,936
47,808
Chinese
1,680
1,759,998
664
139,652
2,244
1,899,550
555,328
On Opium
405,911
Totals ...
5,956
7,807,905
864
397,123
6,810
8,205,028
6,907,194
Of these 120 steamers and 13 vessels entered, and
330 steamers and 76 sailing vessels cleared in ballast.
The total Customs Eevenue, Hk. Tls. 6,907,194, for
the same year consisted of —
Hl£. Tls.
Hk. Tls.
Import Duties
3,895,212
Tonnage Dues
... 401,021
Export Duties
1,190,899
Transit Dues
99,098
Coast Trade Duties
242,684
Opium Likin
... 1,078,280
Of the total value of the Imports of Foreign Goods
at all the Treaty ports, and from Hongkong and Macao
at non-Treaty ports, fifty-eight per cent, and of the
Exports to foreign countries nearly forty-three and a
half per cent, passed through Shanghai, besides most
of the coasting trade ; more than half of the whole
trade of China in foreign vessels thus belonging to
" the commercial metropolis of China."
SOOCHOW
Soochow, the capital of the province of Kiangsu, lies
about eighty miles west and a little north of Shanghai,
with which it is connected by excellent inland water-
ways. The city is a rectangle, its length from north to
south being three and a half miles and its M'idth from
east to west two and a half. It lies not far from the
eastern shore of the great Tailiu lake. Past its walls
SOOCHOW 127
runs the southern section of the Grand Canal, which
joins Hangchow to Chinkiang ; and in every direction
spread creeks or canals, affording easy communication
■with the numerous towns in the surrounding country.
It is an important manufacturing centre, with a popu-
lation of over half a million. Its two chief manu-
factures are satins and silk embroideries of various
kinds. In addition, it sends out silk goods, linen
and cotton fabrics, paper, lacquer ware, and articles
in iron, ivory, wood, horn, and glass. Since the
opening of the port manufactures on foreign principles
have been introduced, and there are now two cotton
mills and several silk filatures. Before the Taiping
rebellion Soochow shared with Hangchow the repu-
tation of being the finest city in China, but it was
almost entirely destroyed by the rebels, who captured
it on 25th May, 1860. Its recovery by Major (after-
wards General) Gordon on 27th November, 1863, was
the first effective blow to the rebellion. Since that
disastrous period it has recovered itself greatly, and
is once more populous and flourishing, though it has
not yet attained to its former pitch of prosperity.
It was declared open to foreign trade on the 26th
September, 1896, under the provisions of the Japanese
treaty. The locality chosen for the Foreign Settlement
is under the southern wall of the city, just across the
Canal, and is a strip of land about 1\ mile long and
a quarter of a mile broad. The western portion has
been reserved for a Japanese settlement. The govern-
ment has made a good carriage-road along the Canal
bank for the whole length of the Settlement, on which
carriages and rickshas ply, and on fine days the road
is crowded with people from the city, amusing them-
selves, walking and driving. The net value of the
trade of the port passing through the Foreign Customs
in 1898 was Tls. 1,527,424, as against Tls. 1,473,453
in 1897, but this represents only a small portion of the
total trade of the port, most of which passes through
the Native Customs.
128 CHINA
CHINKIANG
The port of Chinkiang (or Chen-kiang-fu), which was
declared open to foreign trade by the Treaty of Tientsin,
is situated on the Yangtsze, about 150 miles from its
mouth, and at the point where the Grand Canal enters
the river.
The history of Chinkiang possesses but few features
of interest. The town, as a translation of its name
implies ("Eiver Guard"), was at one time a post of
considerable importance from a military point of view,
when all the rice-tribute from the south of China was
transported to Peking by the interior route. The
British forces captured the place in July, 1842, and
as the cutting off of supplies always operates with great
effect, the commanding situation thus secured was not
long in producing the desired result upon the Central
Government, for the Treaty of Nanking was signed a
month afterwards. The Taiping rebels entered the
town in April, 1853, and continued to occupy it tiU
1857, when they had to evacuate it from the same
cause which had made the Government yield fifteen
years before.
The city lies between one of the mouths of the
Grand Canal and the right bank of the Yangtsze.
Most of the houses are built on level ground, but
the surrounding hills lend a pleasant appearance to
the locality, which is considerably enhanced by the
bluff scenery of the island of Ts'io-shan. When the
city was abandoned by the rebel forces, its destruction
was very nearly complete, and it has "even now hardly
recovered its former prosperous aspect. The city is
enclosed by walls and defended by rather formidable-
looking batteries commanding the river approaches.
The foreign settlement occupies a tract of land ex-
tending from the mouth of the Canal along the bank
of the river. The little settlement has a neat bund,
is provided with a club, and has small Protestant and
NANKING 129
Catholic churches. It was the scene of a formidable
riot on the 5th rebruary, 1889, when about half the
foreign houses and buildings were destroyed by a native
mob. The population of Chinkiang is estimated at
140,000.
The net value of the foreign imports for 1898 was
Tls. 12,650,707 as compared with Tls. 13,310,870 in
1897. The import of Opium into Chinkiang in 1898
was 2953 piculs, against 2950 piculs in 1897, and
10,900 piculs in 1884, the trade having declined owing
to the competition of the lighter taxed native drug.
The net value of the trade of the port for 1898 amounted
to Tls. 23,143,548, in 1897 to Tls. 24,145,341, and in
1896 to Tls. 22,950,209.
NANKING
The city owes its present name, " Southern capital," to
having been many times the capital of the Empire, the
last occasion being in the Ming dynasty at the com-
mencement of the fifteenth century. It is also known
as Kiang Ning Fu, being the chief city of the prefecture
of Kiang Ning, and the seat of government for the
provinces grouped under the designation of Kiang Nan.
In official documents it is not considered proper to call
the city Nanking, since the Government acknowledges
but one capital. Besides Kiang Ning Fu, an elegant
Chinese name commonly used is Kin Ling or " golden
mound," From the fifth or sixth century B.C. to the
present there has been a walled city at this place.
Nanking was specified in the French Treaty of 1858
as one of the Yangtsze ports to be opened to trade, but
was not formally opened until May, 1899.
Nanking is situated on the south bank of the
Yangtsze, 45 miles beyond Chinkiang and 205 from
Shanghai. From the river little can be seen of it
except the long line of lofty grey brick walls which
encircle it. The walls have an elevation varying from
K
1 30 CHINA
40 to 90 feet, are from 20 to 40 feet in thickness, and
22 miles in circumference. They enclose a vast area, a
large portion of which is wilderness or cultivated land.
The inhabited portion lies towards the south and west,
and is several miles from the banks of the river. What-
ever of architectural beauty or importance belonged to
Nanking perished, or was reduced to a ruinous condition,
at or before its occupation by the Taiping rebels. The
world - famous Porcelain Tower, the most beautiful
pagoda in China, was completely destroyed during this
period of its history, and now only broken and scattered
bricks remain of the structure that was once the glory
of Nanking. It stood outside the waUs on the south
side of the city. The celebrated mausoleum of the
Emperor Hung Wu, founder of the Ming dynasty (who
died in 1398), with other tombs and monuments, known
as the Ming Tombs, are just outside the eastern walls.
There are many other interesting ruins in or near the
city, including the remains of Hung Wu's Palace.
Nanking was first brought into notice among Europeans
in 1842, in which year the first British Treaty with
China was signed here. During the Taiping rebellion
no place suffered more. It was first taken by assault
by the Taipings on the 19th March, 1853, and after
sustaining a prolonged siege was recaptured by the
Imperial forces on the 19th July, 1864, a fatal blow to
the rebels.
Although Nanking has recovered to a small extent
from the prostration which attended its iU-treatment
during the rebellion, it has never yet attained any
commercial importance. A Naval College was opened
here in 1890, for which a large pile of buildings was
erected. A dozen teachers and instructors ai-e employed,
including three foreigners. The Arsenal and Powder
Mills, for many years in charge of foreigners, are now
entrusted .to native direction. They are situated just
outside the South Gate. The missionaries support
three hospitals and a number of schools. A macada-
mised road has been built from the steamer landing
WUHU 131
clear through the city to the Tung-Tsi Gate in the
south wall. The carriages and jinrickshas which have
been introduced are much appreciated by the people,
and it is proposed to construct similar roads to other
parts of the city. As the seat of the viceregal govern-
ment and by virtue of its historic associations, Nanking
still possesses some importance, and will, no doubt, now
that it has been opened to foreign trade, regain a degree
of its lost prestige.
WUHU
This port was opened to foreign trade, by the Chefoo
Convention, on the 1st April, 1877. It is situated on
the river Yangtsze, in the province of An-hwei, and is
a halfway port between Chinkiang and Kewkiang,
though nearer to the former. It has the appearance
of a thriving and busy town, and is admirably located
for trade. This is mainly owing to the excellence of
its water communication with the interior. A large
canal, with a depth of five to six feet of water in the
winter and ten to twelve feet in the summer, connects
the port with the important city of Ning-kuoh-fu, in
southern An-hwei, fifty miles distant. Another canal
runs inland for over eight miles in a south-westerly
direction to Taiping-hsien, an extensive tea district.
This canal, which is only navigable in the summer,
passes through Nan-ling and King-hsien, where the
cultivation of silk is carried on, and may some day
be of importance. The silk districts of Nan-ling and
King-hsien are situated within fifty miles of Wuhu.
Besides the canals leading to Ning-kuoh-fu and Taiping-
hsien, there are two others communicating with Su-an
and Tung-p6.
It will be seen, from the above enumeration of the
facilities for water carriage from Wuhu, that it is
calculated to prove an emporium for commerce. The
net value of the foreign imports for the year 1898 was
132 CHINA
Tls. 3,921,205, compared with Tls. 3,708,869 in 1897.
Coal may some day become a considerable article of
export from Wuhu, both Native and Foreign capital
having been directed to the great coal-fields of the
province. The Commissioner of Customs in his report
for 1898 summarised the present position of the industry
as follows : — " The China Merchants' Steam Navigation
Company are interested in several coal districts, and
have expended large sums in the opening of their
mining property ; the output has thus far been small,
owing to the lack of proper machinery and management.
The Chin Kang Company, a wealthy native syndicate,
have a Government permit to open mines in several
districts, and have been prospecting with a view to
developing their property in the near future. A
number of smaller companies are operating at present
with the sanction of the above corporation, to whom
they pay a royalty. Two companies representing
foreign capital — the Yangtsze Land and Investment
Company, Limited, and the I Li Coal and Mining
Company, Limited — have purchased a number of the
most valuable mining properties in the immediate
neighbourhood of Wuhu. Their mines are in some
cases situated within short distances of navigable
streams." There is a large trade in timber in Wuhu,
but that, like all other trade, is in the hands of the
Chinese. The net value of the trade of the port for
1898 was Tls. 10,180,529 as against Tls. 8,888,361 in
1897 and Tls. 11,624,828 in 1896.
The town is fairly well built, with rather broader
streets than most Chinese cities possess, and is tolerably
paved. The tract of land selected for the British
Settlement, though admirably suited for the purpose,
with good deep water frontage, has not yet been availed
of, and there are few foreign houses in the place. The
population of Wuhu is estimated at 80,750. This city
was the scene of formidable anti-missionary riots in
June, 1891.
KEWKIANG 133
KEWKIANG
Kewkiang (now more generally written Kiukiang) is
situated on the river Yangtsze, near the outlet of the
Poyang Lake, and is a prefectural city of the province
of Kiang-si. It is distant about 187 geographical miles
from Hankow and 445 miles from Shanghai. Kew-
kiang was before the Eebellion a busy and populous
city ; but it was occupied by the Taiping rebels in 1853,
and before it was given up to the Imperial troops it was
almost entirely destroyed. When the foreign settle-
ment was established there, however, the population
soon returned, and has continued to increase rapidly :
it is now estimated at 55,000.
The city is buUt close to the river, the walls running
along the banks of it for some 500 yards. Their
circumference is about five miles, but a portion of the
space enclosed is still unoccupied. The city contains
no feature of interest. There are several large lakes
to the north and west of it, and it is backed by a noble
range of hills a few miles distant. The foreign settle-
ment lies to the west of the city and is neatly laid
out. It possesses a small bund lined with trees, a
club, a small Protestant church, and a Koman Catholic
cathedral opened last year.
The idea which led to the opening of Kewkiang was,
no doubt, its situation as regards communication by
water with the districts where the green tea is pro-
duced. But the hopes entertained respecting the port
have never been wholly realised. The total quantity
of tea exported in 1898 was 200,686 piculs, of which
40,299 were green, against 192,942 piculs, including
38,734 piculs green, in 1897 ; the export for 1896 was
230,367 piculs. Kewkiang is the port from whence
the ware made at the far-famed porcelain factories at
Kin-te-chen is shipped. In 1898, 48,646 piculs of this
ware were exported. The net value of the trade of the
port for 1898 was Tls. 17,500,552 against Tls. 14,865,563
in 1897.
1 34 CHINA
HANKOW
Hankow is situated on the river Han at the point
where it enters the Yangtsze, and is in lat. 30 deg.
32 min. 51 sec. N., and long. 114 deg. 19 min. 55 sec.
E. It was formerly regarded as only a suburb of
Hanyang, which it immediately adjoins, and which is
a district city of the province of Hupeh, but Hankow
has outstripped the older city in wealth and importance.
These two towns lie immediately facing the city of
Wuchang-fu, the capital of the province, which is built
upon the south bank of the Yangtsze. Hankow is
distant from Shanghai about 600 miles.
Attention was first drawn to Hankow as a place of
trade by Hue, a French missionary. Captain Blakiston,
in his work " The Yangtsze," gives the following correct
description of the place and its surroundings : — " Han-
kow is situated just where an irregular range of semi-
detached low hills crosses a particularly level country
on both sides of the main river in an east and west
direction. Stationed on Pagoda Hill, Hanyang, a
spectator looks down on almost as much water as land
even when the rivers are low. At his feet sweeps the
magnificent Yangtsze, nearly a mile in width ; from
the west, and skirting the northern edge of the range
of hiUs already mentioned, comes the river Han, narrow
and canal-like, to add its quota, and serving as one of
the highways of the country; and to the north-west
and north is an extensive treeless flat, so little elevated
above the river that the scattered hamlets wliich dot
its surface are without exception raised on mounds,
probably artificial works of a now distant age. A
stream or two traverse its farther part and flow into
the main river. Carrying his eye to the right bank
of the Yangtsze one sees enormous lakes and lagoons
both to the north-west and south-east sides of the hills
beyond the provincial city."
The port was opened to foreign trade in 1861. The
HANKOW 135
British Settlement is located at the east end of the
city, which it joins, and is, together with the race-
course, included within the city walls, which are quite
modern, having been built at the time of the Taiping
Eebellion. It is well laid out, the roads being broad
and all lined with well-grown trees. The Bund
affords a very fine and pleasant promenade, and has
an imposing appearance from the river. There are
a large Eoman Catholic and small Protestant and
Greek churches, the latter a rather handsome structure
built by the Eussian residents. Several brick-tea
factories owned by Eussians are located in the Settle-
ment. A capital club, with tennis- and racquet-courts,
bowling-alley, billiard- and reading-rooms, library, etc.,
is kept up. The river steamers go alongside hulks
moored close to the shore; ocean steamers anchor ia
mid-stream. The current is very strong in the river.
The native city of Hankow presents no distinctive
feature. Like all Chinese cities it is a crowded
agglomeration of narrow lanes. The population of
Hankow is estimated at 800,000. Cotton cloth mills,
established by the Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, com-
menced running in 1892, and large ironworks at Han-
yang have also been established. In August, 1895,
the Wuchang Mint was established, the coinage being
identical, with the exception of the territorial designa-
tion of the Canton Mint.
During the last few years foreign interests at
Hankow have undergone a marked development, the
chief factor in producing the growth being the com-
mencement of work on Lu Han Eailway, a trunk-line
connecting Hankow with Peking, the contract for
which was let to a Belgian syndicate in 1897. The
project had been discussed for some years previously,
and in view of the importance the port will derive
from direct railway communication with the capital,
and from the anticipated opening up of the country
in other directions, Germany, France, Eussia, and
Japan have since 1895 acquired concessions, and an
136 CHINA
extension of the British concession has been granted.
Thus, while there was formerly only a bund of half a
mile in length in front of the British concession, there
is now a continuous line of concessions measuring in
all over two miles of river frontage. Building is going
on apace, roads have been laid out, and the trade of the
port in 1898 was the largest on record.
Tea is the staple export. The total export of tea
from Hankow (including re-exports of Kewkiang tea)
amounted in 1898 to 478,338 piculs (of which 288,193
was to Chinese ports), as compared with 410,019 piculs
shipped in 1897, and the quantity of brick tea exported
in 1898 was 447,006 piculs. In 1898 opium was im-
ported to the extent of 469 piculs as against 518 piculs
in 1897. It is computed that 70 per cent, of the
opium used at this port is native-grown drug ; the im-
port of the foreign article is declining. The trade under
the transit-pass system is larger at Hankow than at
any other port; its value in 1898 was Tls. 9,100,606
as compared with Tls. 9,467,427 in 1897, and Tls.
6,737,406 in 1896. The net value of the trade of the
port in 1898 amounted to Tls. 53,771,445, in 1897 to
Tls. 49,720,630, and in 1896 to Tls. 44,306,493.
YOCHOW
Yochow, with a population of 15,000 to 20,000, is
situated in lat. 29 deg. 23 min. N., and long. 113 deg.
8 min. E. (Greenwich), at the outlet of the Tungting
Lake. Past it ebbs and flows practically the whole of
the trade of Hunan, which, however, adds nothing to
the prosperity of the place, as it simply passes by after
having paid its inward and outward taxes. The city is
the gateway of the province and nothing more.
The province of Huuan has been to foreign com-
merce what Tibet is to the explorer — a Forbidden Land
— and its importance has loomed up to the mind with
all the charm of the unknown. Its people, too, ha^e
YOCHOW 137
had a reputation for savage ferocity beyond all other
Chinese. The people are certainly independent, and
are anti-foreign with all the feeling caused by the
undoubted valour of the myriads of soldiers they have
supplied to the Empire during the last forty years, and
by the dense ignorance created by their haughty
seclusion; but a recent traveller in Hunan, a missionary
of over thirty years' experience, has returned deeply
impressed with their manly and self-respecting cha-
racter, and other missionaries hold the same opinion.
They are intensely patriotic, but their patriotism is
rather for Hunan than for the Empire at large.
The province is rich in many forms of wealth, though
the inhabitants say, with a proudly humble deprecia-
tion, that it consists of "three parts mountain, six
water, and one arable soil." One of the main staples
is rice, of which nearly a million piculs are sent out of
the province, to Hupeh and Kueichow, in an average
year. The Hunan tea sent to Hankow amounts to
about six hundred thousand half-chests a year. The
timber passing down past Changteh is valued officially
at six million taels a year, and is probably worth more.
There is also a large production of cotton. The moun-
tain districts contain large fields of coal, both anthracite
and bituminous ; iron also is known to exist. Sulphur,
antimony, nickel, and other minerals are even now
exported, and great possibilities of development are
undoubtedly to be found.
The local trade of the city of Yochow is of no great
importance, and it is not likely that there will be much
development even after the port has been opened to
foreign residence. It is as the gateway of Hunan that
the place will obtain any importance — the point at
which transhipment must take place from the steamers
plying to and from Hankow, to the junks or other
light-draught craft carrying the goods to the true
commercial centres of Hunan, viz. Changsha and Siang-
tan on the Siang Eiver, and Changteh on the Yuen Eiver,
both rivers emptying into the Tungting Lake. The
138 CHINA
population of these cities cannot be ascertained, but
travellers report that each extends for about five miles
along the river bank. Above Yochow the navigation
presents no difficulties except those arising from
shallow water. The so-called Tungting Lake — a lake
in summer, but rather a system of wide, shallow,
meandering channels separated by vast alluvial flats in
winter — is utilised for navigation only along its Eastern
edge on the direct line from Yochow to the mouth of
the Siang. The bar of this river has from three to four
feet of water at the low-water stage, while that of the
Yuen is said to have less than three feet; the latter
is generally entered by junks through the winding
channels of the delta of the Siang, the direct approach
across the lake being neglected, probably because with
an unfavourable wind the junks now engaged in the
traffic must have a bank from which to track, but
possibly also because it may not be easy to find the
channel. Steam launches now ply from Yochow to
Changsha, but take passengers only, no attempt having
been yet made to tow cargo-carrying boats.
The city of Yochow is perched on a bluff in a very
picturesque way. Its site is, however, not adapted for
a transit trade, and it offers no shelter for smsJl craft.
The port has, therefore, been opened at Chenglin, five
miles to the north and only a mile from the Yangtsze,
where a small creek provides the needed shelter for
cargo-boats, and a good anchorage is found for steamers.
Here the Chinese Government has set aside a place
for a cosmopolitan settlement, for which they them-
selves will provide roads, police, etc. ; the site contains
level ground for business purposes, well raised, but
not too high, above flood limits, while higher ground
gives good and healthy sites for foreign houses.
SHASI 139
SHASI
Shasi is one of the ports opened to foreign trade
under the Japanese treaty of 1895, the official declara-
tion of the opening being dated the 1st October, 1896.
The port is situated about 85 miles below Ichang, and
is situated at the crossing point of two most important
routes of commerce in Central China, namely, from
east to west and from north to south, and vice versa.
The population, according to a census taken in 1896,
amounts to 73,400, and the floating population, of
which no account is kept, may be estimated at 10,000
more. The town itself is much like other native towns
of its size. It lies below the level of the river, from
which it is protected by a huge embankment which
runs for miles above and below the town. Formerly
Shasi was an important distributing centre, but the
opening of Ichang to foreign trade diverted much of
the traffic to the last-named port. It was hoped that
when Shasi itseK was opened it would regain its im-
portance as a point of distribution, but the experience
now gained shows that the development is likely to be
slow. On the 9th and 10th May, 1898, a serious anti-
foreign riot occurred at Shasi. The Customs Office
and the residence of the Commissioner, the Customs
boats, the premises of the China Merchants' Company
and their hulk, the office of the Foreign Board, the
Japanese Consulate, the premises occupied by the
native agents of Messrs. Butterfield & Swire and
Messrs. Jardine, Matheson & Co., and a number of
newly-erected Chinese houses were burnt by the mob.
Kerosene oil being used to feed the conflagration, and
the foreign residents were driven out of the port,
narrowly escaping with their lives. The Custom House
was re-opened on the 1st July of the same year. In
August, 1898, an area of 3800 Chinese feet in length,
by 800 to 1200 in breadth, lying along the river-side
below the town, was assigned to Japan as a Japanese
I40 CHINA
concession. The British Consulate was withdrawn in
January, 1899, British interests being placed under the
care of the Consul at Ichang. The estimated value of
the trade of the port coming under the cognizance of
the Foreign Customs was in 1898 Tls. 171,110, showing
a decrease of Tls. 145,402 on the previous year. The
bulk of the carrying trade is, however, carried on by
junks, which do not come under the control of the
Foreign Customs.
'*o'-
ICHANG
Is one of the four ports opened to foreign trade on
the 1st April, 1877, in accordance with clause 1, section
3, of the Chefoo Convention.
Ichang is situated in lat. 30 deg. 44 min. 25 sec. N.,
long. Ill deg. 18 min. 34 sec. E., on the left bank of
the river Yangstze, about 393 miles above Hankow,
and some ten miles below the entrance to the great
Ichang gorge. The navigation of the river to this port
is comparatively easy for vessels of light draught, but
great care is necessary for all vessels when in the
neighbourhood of Sunday Island, owing to the shifting
sandbanks. The anchorage is off the left bank, opposite
the foreign residences, and is good, except in freshets,
when the anchors should be sighted every two or three
days. The port is the centre of a hilly country, the
productions of which are rice in the valleys, cotton on
the higher grounds, winter wheat, barley, and also the
tungtzu trees, from which the ordinai-y wood oil is
obtained by pressing the nuts gathered from the trees.
In the sheltered vaUeys, amongst the mountain ranges
west of the city, oranges, lemons, pomelos, pears, plums,
and a very superior quality of persimmons ai-e grown and
find a ready market in the city and at Shasi. Ichang has
increased in importance since the opening of Chungking.
All cargo for the latter port is landed here and trans-
ferred to chartered junks. In the same way cargo
CHUNGKING 141
brought down in chartered junks from Chungking and
intended for the lower river and coast ports is shipped
here on river steamers, which make regular voyages to
and from Hankow.
Native opium is largely grown froD(i here westwards,
and is increasing in quantity and improving in quality.
The climate of Ichang is drier than that of the lower
river ports — summers very warm, winters dry and
pleasant. The native population is estimated at about
35,000. The foreign residents are few in number,
educated native agents representing the four or five
foreign hongs doing business here. Fine new Consular
and Customs buildings have recently been erected, and
have improved the appearance of the Settlement very
much.
The net value of the trade of the port, excluding
transhipment cargo, was in 1898 Tls. 1,295,729, in
1897 Tls. 1,794,380, and in 1896 Tls. 2,210,301.
The foreign imports amounted to Tls. 490,282. The
gross value of the trade of the port, including re-exports,
was in 1898 Tls. 16,089,058, in 1897 Tls. 18,750,433,
in 1896 Tls. 15,089,604.
CHUNGKING
The city of Chungking, situated in lat. 29 deg.
33 min. 30 sec. N., long. 107 deg. 2 min. E., may well
be described as not only the commercial capital of
Szechuen, but of the whole of "Western China. The
foreign import trade centres here, and is then distributed
by a smaller class of trading junks up the various
rivers of the province. AU exports — yellow silk, white
wax, hides, leather, feathers, bristles, rhubarb, musk,
opium, and the large assortment of Chinese medicines —
are received, assorted, repacked, and shipped to Ichang,
Hankow, and Shasi, consignments to the latter port
being transhipped there into smaller junks, and
142 CHINA
forwarded to the southern provinces, via the Tungting
lake.
The city occupies the end of a high and rocky blufif
forming a peninsula at the junction of the river Kia-ling
with the Yangtsze, 1400 miles from the mouth of the
latter. The principal streets of the city, in which are
many fine shops, are on the side of the Yangtsze. It is
surrounded by a crenelated stone wall in good repair,
which is some five nules in circumference, pierced with
nine gates. This wall was built in 1761, replacing an
older one. The climate of Chungking is depressing,
the summer being hot and damp, the winters raw and
chilly, with thick fogs from November to March.
Spring and autumn can indeed hardly be said to exist.
The ordinary rise of the river is about 70 feet ; in 1892
it rose 96 feet, and in 1897 to 101 feet, the water not
being able to force its way fast enough through the
gorges. An extraordinary landslip occurred in Sep-
tember, 1896, some distance below Chungking, which
formed a dangerous rapid, and greatly interfered with
traffic on the river. Operations are now in progress
for the removal of the obstruction. On the Irft bank
of the Kia-ling and facing Chungking, extending below
the junction of the two rivers, is the walled city of
Kiang-Peh-ting, formerly within the district of Li Min
Fu, but now incorporated in Chungking Fu. These two
cities and the large villages in their immediate neigh-
bourhood are estimated to contain a population of about
300,000.
The port was declared open to foreign trade in March,
1891, but business did not actually commence until the
18th June, since which date a large trade has been done
both in imports and exports, canied in foreign char-
tered junks, but latterly the trade has been checked by
rebellious disturbances. The net value of the trade for
1898 was Tls. 17.426,872, for 1897 Tls. 17,971,376, and
for 1896 Tls. 13,131,509.
The Yangtsze is navigable for steamers from Ichang,
not only to Chungking, but as far as Suchau-fu, where
HANGCHOW 143
the Min river joins the Yangtsze, but before the
Japanese war steamers were not allowed to ascend
above Ichang. By the Japanese treaty of 1894, how-
ever, the right of steam navigation to Chungking was
secured, and in the spring of 1898 the voyage was suc-
cessfully accomplished by Mr. A. J. Little with the small
steamer Leechuen, which, however, being of limited
power, had to be tracked up the rapids in the same way
as junks.
HANGCHOW
Hangchow, the capital of the province of Chekiang,
is situated 150 miles south-west of Shanghai, and 127
miles south of Soochow, on the Chien-tang Eiver at the
apex of a bay which is too shallow for the navigation
of steamers. The mouth of the river is, moreover,
periodically visited by a bore or tidal wave, which
fiurther endangers the navigation. Haining is the best
place for observing this famous bore, which is formed
by the north-east trade wind heaping up the water of
the Pacific on the China coast and causing enormous
tides. Hangchow Bay is shaped like a funnel, and the
mass of water rushing up, more and more concentrated
as it advances, is suddenly confronted by the current
of the river. The momentary check causes the water
to assume a wall-like formation ; then, growing to a
height of 15 feet, and gathering momentum with the
immense pressure behind, forcing its volume into the
comparatively narrow waterway, it tears past the sea-
wall with a roar like thunder at a rate sometimes
exceeding 15 miles an hour. Before the Taiping re-
bellion Hangchow shared with Soochow the reputation
of being the finest city in the Empire, on account of its
wealth and splendour, but it was almost destroyed by
the rebels. It has since rapidly recovered, and is once
more populous and flourishing, though it has not yet
1 44 CHINA
regained its former pitch of prosperity. The popula-
tion is estimated at 750,000, including suburbs. As a
manufacturing centre Hangchow takes place even before
Soochow. Its three great trades are silk-weaving,
including several kinds of crape and gauze, the produc-
tion of fans of all kinds, and the making of thin tinfoil,
from which are formed the imitation ingots of silver,
burnt as sacrificial offerings by the Chinese. In
addition, it sends out thread, string, colours, drugs,
lacquer, and many other articles in small quantities.
The communication by water with Shanghai is par-
ticularly good, and might be much improved with very
little trouble by a small amount of dredging at a spot in
the Grand Canal twenty miles from Hangchow. Ningpo,
about eighty miles distant, can also be reached by boat
from Hangchow, but the canals are not so large and
convenient. Hangchow was declared open to foreign
trade on the 26th September, 1896, in accordance with
the terms of the Japanese treaty. Steam launches ply
regularly to and from Shanghai, and to and from Soo-
chow, with passenger-boats in tow, making the trip in
from 18 to 24 hours. One of the sights of Hangchow
is the famous western lake, dotted with islets crowned
with shrines and memorial temples, and spanned by
causeways joining island to island. The general pic-
turesque effect is heightened by temples, pagodas, and
similar monuments judiciously placed in effective spots,
while the slopes of the hills bordering the lake on the
west are bright with azaleas, honeysuckle, and peach-
bloom, and* clusters of bamboos, several kinds of
conifers, the stillignia, camphor tree, and maple in rich
profusion, all help to make the scene ideally perfect.
The site selected for the Foreign Settlement extends
for a mile along the east bank of the Grand Canal ; it
covers over half a square mile, and is about four miles
from the city wall. The Custom House and Commis-
sioner's and Assistants' residences are built on the Cus-
toms Lot, and an imposing Police Station has also been
put up. On the west side, opposite the Settlement, a
NINGPO 145
cotton mill, owned by Chinese and built and worked on
western lines, is in operation. A native-owned steam
silk filature is also in existence, although not working
for the present. The net value of the trade of the port
coming under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs
for 1897 was Tls. 7,670,619, and for 1898 Tls. 7,993,479.
The commodities chiefly dealt in were opium, tin,
Japanese copper, kerosine oil, soap, sugar, prepared
tobacco, varnish, paper fans, silk piece goods, raw silk,
and tea. The imports of foreign goods amounted to
Tls. 2,086,840, and the exports to Tls. 5,033,245. A
brisk trade has been done during 1899.
NINGPO
Ningpo is situated on the river Yung, in the province
of Chekiang, in lat. 29 deg. 55 min. N., and long. 121
deg. 22 min. E. It was one of the five ports thrown
open to foreigners in 1842. Foreigners had, however,
visited Ningpo at an early date. Portuguese traded
there in 1522 ; a number of them settled in the place
in that and succeeding years, and there was every
prospect of a rising and successful Settlement soon
being established. But the lawless acts of the Portu-
guese soon attracted the attention of the Government,
and in 1542 the Governor of Chekiang ordered the
Settlement to be destroyed and |the population to be
exterminated. A large force of Chinese troops soon
besieged the place, destroying it entirely, and out of a
population of 1200 Portuguese, 800 were massacred.
No further attempt at trade with this port was made till
towards the close of the seventeenth century, when the
East India Company established a factory at the island
of Chusan, some forty miles from Ningpo. The attempt
to found a trade mart there, however, proved unsatis-
factory, and the factory was abandoned after a very few
years' trial. The port was deserted by foreigners for
146 CHINA
many years after that. When hostilities broke out
between Great Britain and China in 1839, the fleet
moved north from Canton, and on the 13th October,
1841, occupied Ningpo, and an English garrison was
stationed there for some time. In March, 1842, an
attempt was made by the Chinese to retake the city,
but the British artillery repulsed them with great
slaughter. Ningpo was evacuated on May 7th, and,
on the proclamation of peace in the following August,
the port was thrown open to foreign trade.
Ningpo is built on a plain which stretches away to
a considerable distance on either side. It is a walled
city, the walls enclosing a space of some five miles in
circumference. The walls are built of brick, and are
about twenty-five feet higL They are fifteen feet wide
at the summit, and twenty-two at the base. Access is
obtained to the town by six gates. A large moat com-
mences at the north gate and runs along the foot of
the wall for about three miles on the landward side,
until it stops at what is called the Bridge Gate. The
main street runs from east to west. Several of the
streets are spanned by arches erected in memory of
distinguished natives. Ningpo has been celebrated as
possessing the fourth library of Chinese works, in point
of numbers, which existed in the empire. It was owned
by a family who resided near the south gate. The site
occupied by the foreign residences is on the north bank
of the river. The population of Ningpo is estimated at
255,000.
The foreign trade at Ningpo has never been large.
This is owing to a considerable extent to the proximity
of Shanghai; the native guilds preventing direct
dealings with foreigners. A Cotton - mill was es-
tablished in 1896, and commenced work in June of
that year. Of Tea, there were 54,029 piculs exported
in 1898, 75,399 in 1897, and 178,004 in 1896, the
falling off being due to a diversion of the Fychow
tea trade, which formerly passed through this port,
but is now forwarded to Shanghai via Hangchow.
WENCH OW 147
The net value of the trade ot the port was Haikwan
Tls. 14,418,534 in 1898, Tls. 16,042,136 in 1897, and
Tls. 17,123,444 in 1896.
WENCHOW
Wenchow-fu, one of the five ports opened to foreign
trade by the Chefoo Convention, is the chief town in
the department of the same name occupying the south-
east corner of Chekiang province. The city is situated
on the south bank of the river Ou-kiang, about twenty
miles from its mouth, in lat. 27 deg. 18 min. 4 sec. N.,
long. 120 deg. 38 min. 28 sec. E. The site is a well-
cultivated plain, bounded on all sides, but at a distance
of some five miles, by lofty hills. The walls are said
to have been first erected during the fourth century,
and enlarged and re-built by the Emperor Hung Wu in
1385. They are formed of stone, diagonally laid at the
foundation, and partly also of brick, and measure about
four miles in circumference. The streets are wider,
straighter, and cleaner than those of most Chinese cities.
They are mostly well paved with brick and kept in
careful repair by the householders. They slope down
on either side to waterways, which in their turn com-
municate with canals permeating the whole city. There
are numerous large nunneries and temples in Wen-
chow. The Custom House, outside the chief gate,
known as the Shwang Men or "Double Gate," the
Taotai's Yamen, the Prefect's and other public offices
in a cluster, and the Foundling Hospital, all near the
centre, are the other chief buildings. The latter insti-
tution, built in 1748, contains one hundred apartments.
Among the objects of greatest interest and curiosity to
the stranger are two pagodas situated on " Conquest "
Island, abreast of the city. They are both of great
antiquity and, with the houses close by, were for some
time the retreat of Ti Ping, the last Emperor of the
Sung dynasty, when seeking to escape from the Mongols
148 CHINA
under Kublai Khan. The British Consul and the
Customs outdoor staff occupy foreign-built houses on
the island. His Majesty Ti Ping has left behind him
autographs preserved to this day in the adjoining
temple. The estimated population of the city is
80,000.
There is no foreign settlement at W^nchow, and the
foreign residents are a mere handful, consisting almost
entirely of ofBcials and missionaries. A large quantity
of native opiuin is produced in the vicinity of Wen-
chow. There is a considerable native export trade in
wood, charcoal, and bamboos, brought down the river
on rafts from Ch'u-chow. The annual value of this
trade is estimated to be not less than $2,000,000. The
shops and yards engaged in it are situated in the west
suburb, where immense quantities of bamboos and poles
are kept on hand. Wenchow is also celebrated for its
bitter oranges. The export of Tea in 1898 was 13,047
piculs, as compared with 13,310 piculs in 1897. The
value of the net trade of the port coming under the
cognizance of the Foreign Customs for 1898 was Tls.
1,437,728, for 1897 Tls. 1,255,204, and for 1896 Tls.
1,083,221.
SANTU (FUNING-FU)
Santu was voluntarily opened to foreign trade by
the Chinese Government on the 1st May, 1899. It is a
port in the Samsah Basin, a few miles north of Foochow.
A good deal of the tea shipped from Foochow comes
from Samsah district, but owing to the opposition of
the carrying coolies, who thought their earnings were
threatened by the opening of the new port, there was
little direct shipment in 1899. The Samsah Basin, on
account of its picturesque scenery, has been described
as a miniature Inland Sea of Japan.
FOOCHOIV 149
FOOCHOW
Foochow (or Fuh-chau-fu) is the capital of the
Fokien province. It is situated in lat. 26 deg.
02 min. 24 sec. N., and long. 119 deg. 20 min. E.
The city is built on a plain on the northern side of
the river Min, and is distant about thirty-four miles
from the sea, and nine miles from Pagoda Island, where
foreign vessels anchor.
The attention of foreigners was early attracted to
Foochow as a likely place where commercial inter-
course could be profitably carried on in the shipment
of Bohea Tea, which is grown largely in the locality.
Before the port was opened, this article used to be
carried overland to Canton for shipment, a journey
which was both long and difficult. The East India
Company, as early as 1830, made representations in
favour of the opening of the port, but nothing definite
was done till the conclusion of the Treaty of Nanking
in 1842. The early years of intercourse with the
natives were anything but what was anticipated. The
navigation of the river was difiicult, there was no market
for imports, and several attacks by the populace rendered
the port an undesirable place of residence for some time.
It was not until some ten years after the port had been
opened that there was much done in the export of tea
from the interior, but after that the quantity shipped
increased largely, and Foochow became one of the
principal tea ports in China. Since 1880, when the
tea trade of the port reached its highest figure, the
export being 737,000 piculs, the prosperity of the place
has been on the wane, and in 1898 the shipment of this
its staple product was 305,555 piculs only, including
35,962 piculs brick tea.
The city is built around three hills, and the circuit of
the walled portion is between six and seven miles in
1 50 CHINA
length. The walls are about thirty feet high, aud
twelve feet wide at the top. The streets are narrow
and filthy, but the number of trees about the official
quarter of the city, and the wooded hills enclosed by
the walls, give a picturesque appearance to the general
view. Two well-preserved pagodas stand within the
city walls. Near the east gate of the city are several
hot springs, which are used by the natives for the cure
of skin diseases, and are believed to be very efficacious.
The Foochow people excel in the manufacture of minia-
ture monuments, pagodas, dishes, etc., from what is called
" soap-stone," and in the construction of artificial flowers,
curious figures of birds, etc. A few miles above the city
the river divides into two branches, which, after pursuing
separate courses for fifteen miles, unite a little above
Pagoda Anchorage. The Foreign Settlement stands on
the northern side of the island thus formed, and which
is called Nantai. A bridge across the river, known as
the Long Bridge or Bridge of the Ten Thousand Ages,
aifords access to the city.
The climate of Foochow is mild and delightful for
about nine months of the year, but in the summer it is
rather trying, the range of the thermometer then being
from 74 deg. Fahr. to 98 deg. A refuge from the heat
of summer can, however, be gained by a three hours'
chair-ride to the top of Kuliang, which mountain resort
is now much frequented by the foreign residents. The
thermometer indicates an average of 10 degrees cooler
on the mountain than it is in Foochow ; the nights are
always cool, and blankets a necessity for comfort. Sharp
Peak also affords a seaside and bathing resort which is
much appreciated.
The scenery surrounding Foochow is very beautiful.
In sailing up the Min river from the sea, vessels have
to leave the wide stream and enter what is called the
Kimpai Pass, which is barely half a mile across, and
enclosed as it is by bold, rocky walls, it presents a very
striking appearance. The Pass of Min-ngan is narrower,
and with its towering cliffs, surmounted by fortifications
FOOCHOW 151
and cultivated terraces, is extremely picturesque, and
has been compared to some of the scenes on the Ehine.
The Yung Fu, a tributary of the Min, also affords some
charming scenery, the hills rising very abruptly from
the river bank. The Min Monastery, the Moon Temple,
and the Kushan Monastery, all occupying most romantic
and beautiful sites, are fine specimens of Chinese religious
edifices, and are much resorted to by visitors. Game
abounds in all the ravines and mountains in the vicinity
of Foochow, while tigers and panthers are common in
the more remote hills, and some of these beasts have
been killed within ten miles of the city.
On the 1st August, 1895, a fearful massacre of
missionaries occurred at Hwasang, a village near
Kucheng, 120 miles west of Foochow, nine adults
(eight of them ladies) and one child being killed,
and another child receiving injuries from which it
died some days later.
Foreign vessels, with the exception of those of very
light draught, are compelled to anchor at Pagoda Island
owing to the shallowness of the river, which has been
increasing of late years, and the difiiculties of navigation ;
even at the anchorage the river is silting up in several
places. The limits of the port of Foochow extend from
the City Bridge to the Kimpai Pass. The Mamoi
Arsenal, near Pagoda Anchorage, is an extensive
Government establishment, where several good-sized
gunboats have been built. The Arsenal was bombarded
by the French on the 23rd and 24th August, 1884, and
reduced to partial ruin, but has since been restored. The
establishment is now being re-organised, and is adminis-
tered by French experts. The construction of a new
dock in connection with the Arsenal was commenced
in November, 1887, on Losing Island. The dock is
over 300 feet long, and has very powerful pumps and
a good steel caisson. A small daily paper called the
Foochow Echo is published. The population of Foochow
is estimated at 650,000.
The net value of the trade of the port coming under
152 CHINA
tlie cognizance of the Foreign Customs was lor 1898
Tls. 15,725,908, for 1897 Tls. 13,556,494, and for 1896
Tls. 14,622,764.
AMOY
Amoy was one of the five ports open to foreign trade
before the ratification of the Treaty of Tientsin- It is
situated upon the island of Haimun, at the mouth of
the Pei Chi or Dragon Kiver, in lat. 24 deg. 40 min. N.,
and long. 118 deg. E. It was the scene of trade with
western nations at a very early date. The Portuguese
went there in 1544, but in consequence of their cruelty
towards the natives, the Chinese authorities forcibly
expelled them, and burned thirteen of their vessels.
The English had commercial dealings there up to 1730,
when the Chinese Government issued an edict pro-
hibiting trade with foreigners at all ports except
Canton. They made an exception as regards Spanish
ships, which were allowed to trade at Amoy. The
vessels of other nationalities, however, continued to
visit the place and did so till the city was captured in
1841. The Treaty of Nanking was signed soon after-
wards, by which all foreigners were admitted to trade
there.
In describing Amoy, Dr.Williams says : — " The island
(upon which Amoy is built) is about forty miles in
circumference and contains scores of large villages
besides the city. The scenery within the bay is pic-
turesque, caused partly by the numerous islands which
define it, surmounted by pagodas or temples, and partly
by the high barren hills behind the city. There is an
outer and an inner city, as one approaches it seaward,
divided by a high ridge of rocky hills having a fortified
wall running along the top. A paved road connects
the two. The entire circuit of the city and suburbs is
about eight miles, containing a population of 300,000,
while that of the island is estimated at 100,000 more.
AAfOV 153
The harbour is one of the best on the coast ; there is
good holding ground in the outer harbour, and vessels
can anchor in the inner, within a short distance of the
beach, and be perfectly secure ; the tide rises and falls
from fourteen to sixteen feet. The western side of
the harbour, here from 675 to 840 yards wide, is
formed by the island of Kulangsu. It is a picturesque
little spot, and maintains a rural population of 3500
people. Eastward of Amoy is the island of Quemoy or
Kinmun (Golden Harbour), presenting a striking con-
trast in the low foreground on its south shore to the
high land on Amoy." The population of the city is,
however, now estimated at 96,000.
Amoy ranks as a third-class city. It is considered,
even for China, to be very dirty, and its inhabitants are
unusually squalid in their habits. There are several
places of interest to foreigners in the vicinity, and
excursions can be made to Chang-chow-fu, the chief
city of the department of that name, and situated about
35 miles from Amoy. The island of Kulangsu is about
a third of a mile from Amoy, and the residences of
nearly all the foreigners are to be found there, although
most of the foreign business is transacted on the Amoy
side. There is a good Club in the Settlement, adjoining
which is the cricket-ground. A neat little Anglican
Church has also been erected. A Japanese Settlement
was marked out in 1899. There are three granite
docks at Amoy, the largest being 310 feet by 60 feet ;
they are owned and managed by foreigners. A small
shipping sheet called the Amoy Gazette is published
daily. The foreign residents number about 280.
There has always been a comparatively good trade
done at Amoy, There is frequent and pretty regular
steamer communication with Hongkong, Swatow, and
Foochow. Direct communication with Manila and the
Straits Settlements is also maintained. The total export
of Tea for 1898 was 150,442 piculs (including 140,969
piculs re-exported) as against 144,420 piculs (including
132,293 piculs re-exported) in 1897 and 213,017 piculs
154 CHINA
in 1896. The Tea re-exported is mostly from Formosa.
The export of Sugar for 1898 was 953 piculs to foreign
countries, and 187,041 to Chinese ports. The net
importation of Opium for 1898 was 3790 piculs as
compared with 4306 piculs in 1897 and 3818 piculs in
1896. The net value of the trade of the port coming
under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was for
1898 Tls. 13,251,360, for 1897 Tls. 12,973,616, and for
1896 Tls. 13,012,047.
SWATOW
Swatow, which was first thrown open to foreigners by
the Treaty of Tientsin, is situated at the mouth of the
river Han, near the eastern border of the Kwangtung
province, in lat. 23 deg. 20 min. 43 sec. N., and long.
116 deg. 39 min. 3 sec. E. It is the shipping port for
the city of Cha'o-chow-fu, the seat of the local govern-
ment, 35 miles inland, and San-Ho-Pa, 40 miles farther
up the river.
Swatow is built on the northern bank of the Han,
which forms part of an alluvial plain through which
the branches of the river flow. The shore on the
opposite side is bold and striking, the hills stretching
away to the coast and forming what is known to sea-
going people as the " Cape of Good Hope ; " Pagoda
HiU rises at the opposite side ; and in a direct line
from this lies the large island of Namoa.
The first foreign trading depot in this locality was
inaugurated at Namoa, where the opium vessels used to
anchor, but it was subsequently removed to Double
Island, which is situated just inside the river and is
four miles from Swatow. Foreigners here made them-
selves notorious in the early years of the Settlement by
the kidnapping of coolies, and so strong was the feeling
shown against them by the natives that no foreigners
were safe far from Double Island, while they were
strictly forbidden to enter Swatow, and it was not
SWA TOW 155
until 1861 that they could do so. In tlie country
round Swatow the antipathy to foreigners was of much
longer duration. The British Consul was held techni-
cally to reside at Cha'o-chow-fu, and subsequent to
1861 several ineffectual attempts were made to pass
tlirough its gates. In 1866 a visit was made under
more favourable circumstances, but it is only within
the last few years that the population has refrained
from annoyance and insult to foreigners within its
walls. In 1862 the lease of a piece of land was applied
for and granted to the British Government on the north
bank of the river about a mile from Swatow, but so
strong were the demonstrations of the populace against
it that the matter fell through. Foreign residences,
however, commenced to spring up here and there, and
many of them are consequently somewhat scattered,
though the majority are in or near the town of Swatow.
The yearly increasing traffic of the port has led to
much overcrowding on the narrow strip of land on
which it is built, and since February, 1877, no less
than 21J acres have been reclaimed from the sea, the
greater part of which is now covered with shops and
houses.
The climate of Swatow is reputed to be very salu-
brious. The town occupies, however, an unenviable
position as regards typhoons, on account of being
opposite the lower mouth of the Formosa Channel, and
it has on many occasions been subjected to all the
violence of these terrible storms, which almost every
year sweep across the lower coast of China. The
population of Swatow is estimated at 35,000.
The foreign trade of Swatow has never been large,
but of late years it has shown a slight increase. A
considerable trade is done in Sugar, there having been
789,298 piculs brown and 667,465 picuLs white exported
in 1898 (nearly all to Chinese ports) against 704,270
piculs brown and 629,780 piculs white in 1897. The
China Sugar Eefining Co. of Hongkong have a large
Sugar Eefinery here, but work has for some time been
156 CHINA
suspended. A large beancake factory was also started
in 1882. The net value of the trade of the port coming
under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs was for
1898 Tls. 35,383,998, for 1897 Tls. 28,398,001, and for
1896 Tls. 27,276,480.
CANTON
Canton is situated on the Chu-kiang or Pearl Eiver,
in latitude 23 deg. 7 min. 10 sec. N., and longitude 113
deg. 14 min. 30 sec. E., and is the capital of the pro-
vince of Kwangtung. It is sometimes called the City
of Eams and the City of Genii, both of which names
are derived from ancient legends. Canton is a foreign
perversion of Kwangtung, its real name. One of the
first cities in the Chinese Empire, it is also the seat of
government for the province, and is the residence of
the Viceroy of " The Two Kwang " (Kwangtung and
Kwangsi). The Tartar General is likewise resident
here, besides a number of other Government officials of
more or less distinction, including the Haikwan, or
Superintendent of Customs, a post always held by a
Manchu.
Owing to its favoured situation. Canton became at an
early date the Chinese port to which the traffic of
European countries was first attracted. The Portuguese
found their way thither in 1516, and Arab navigators
had been making regular voyages between Canton and
the ports of Western Asia as early as the tenth century.
The Dutch appeared on the scene about a hundred
years later than the Portuguese, and these in their turn
were supplanted by the English. The latter, towards
the close of the seventeenth century, founded the very
profitable trade which was conducted for nearly one
hundred and fifty years by the Agents of the East
India Company, who established a Factory there in
1684, which was afterwards celebrated throughout the
world. From 1684 the export of tea to England
IJAXTI>N. FLOWKl; nilA'I'S.
MAHBLE KOCK. WEST lilVEI!. [Page 156.
CANTON 157
increased rapidly. The Company's monopoly terminated
in 1834. In 1839 Great Britain was led to a declara-
tion of war with China in consequence of the oppression
to which foreigners were subjected by the native
authorities, and Canton was menaced with capture in
1841. A pecuniary ransom was, however, received in
lieu of the occupation of the city, and hostilities were
for the time being suspended. The lesson, unfortu-
nately, was without effect, and the arrogance of the
Chinese authorities continued unabated. The British
campaign in Central China ensued, and the result was
the signature of the Treaty of Nanking (August 29th,
1842), by which what was called the Co-Hong monopoly
at Canton was abolished and four additional ports
thrown open to foreign trade. Nevertheless, the pro-
visions of the Treaty continued to be ignored in the
City of Eams, and foreigners were stiU denied admit-
tance within its walls. The result of protracted
annoyances and insults was that in October, 1856, Sir
Michael Seymour, with the fleet, again opened hostilities,
and some two months later a mob in retaliation pillaged
and burned all the foreign residences. In December,
1857, Sir Charles Straubenzee, in command of an
expedition which had been specially despatched from
England, attacked the city, and it was taken on the 29th
of that month. The French also sent out an expedition,
and the city was occupied by the AlKed Forces until
October, 1861, a period of nearly four years.
The city proper extends to a breadth of about two
miles, is about six miles in circumference, and is
enclosed by walls about twenty feet thick and from
twenty-five to forty feet high. The suburbs spread
along the river for nearly five miles. The entire circuit,
including the suburbs, is nearly ten miles, the waiQs
enclosing about six miles. What is called the New
City now was formerly known as the Southern Suburb,
The Western Suburb stretches for miles along the
river. There are sixteen gates giving admission into
the city beside two water-gates. Canton contains great
158 CHINA
attractions for foreign visitors in its numerous temples,
pagodas, etc., and in the many curio shops to be found
there. As a specimen of Chinese architecture the Chin
Chew Club is well worthy of inspection, and the
Examination Hall, the City of the Dead, the Execution
Ground, the Gaols, the Arsenal, an ancient Water
Clock, and the Mahomedan Mosque are among other
show places. The French Mission have erected a large
and handsome Gothic cathedral, with two lofty towers
surmounted by spires, in the city. The structure is
entirely built of dressed granite. A Mint, constructed
by the late Viceroy Chang Chih-tung, and furnished
with a very complete plant, has been erected near the
North Gate, commenced work in 1889, and now issues
a silver subsidiary coinage as well as copper cash. The
buildings cover a large area. On the opposite side of
the river the Honam Temple and Monastery is the
principal attraction. The population of Canton is
estimated at 2,500,000, which is the figure given in the
last issue of the Customs Trade Reports. A native
ofiBicial report in 1895 gave the population as 499,288
only ; but this was exclusive of the boat population
and is believed to have been inaccurate as regards the
land population.
When the foreign merchants returned to Canton to
establish trade after the capture of the city by the
English at the close of 1857, they found the Factory
and the buildings along the river in ruins. Recourse
for accommodation was consequently had to warehouses
on the HoiMim side of the river. Considerable dis-
cussion subsequentlytook^ace as to the selection of a
site for a permanen!ril^^3|!| Settlement, and it was
eventually determined otcc an extensive mud-flat
known as Shameen should be filled in and appropriated.
In 1859 an artificial island was created there, a canal
constructed between the northern side of the site and
the city, and solid and extensive embankments of
masonry built. If took about two years to complete
this undertaking, and cost no less than $325,000. Of
CANTON 159
this sum four-fifths were defrayed by the British, and
one-fifth by the French Government, to whom a portion
of the reclaimed land was given. Up to 1889 most
of the French concession remained unutilised, but in
that year a number of lots were sold and are now built
upon. The French also received a grant of the old site
of the Viceroy's Yamen, on which the Catholic Cathedral
has been erected. Shameen is pleasingly laid out, and
the roads are shaded with well-grown trees. A neat
church, called Christ Church, stands at the western end.
There is good hotel accommodation. During an anti-
foreign riot on the 10th September, 1883, sixteen
houses and the Concordia Theatre on the Settlement
were burned by the mob.
In consequence of the decline in the importance of
Canton as a place of trade, caused principally by the
opening of some of the northern ports, many of the
merchants by whom lots were purchased there in 1861,
at enormous prices, withdrew from Canton altogether.
The trade no\r, transacted there by foreigners is limited.
Tea and Silk are the staple exports. The total export
of Tea for the year ending 31st December, 1898, was
10,025 piculs, in 1897 13,501 piculs, and in 1896
10,900 piculs. The extent to which the trade has
fallen off will be seen on a comparison of the above
figures with those for 1888, when the export was
131,141 piculs. The quantity of Kaw Silk (exclusive
of Eefuse and Wild Silk) exported in 1,898 was 33,853
piculs, in 1897 30,716 piculs, and 23,28? piculs in 1896.
These figures, however, which are taken from the
Foreign Customs returnSjAknot give thfe lota! export,
but only those in foreigiHpssels. Both Tea and Silk
are carried in large quantities to Hongkong by junk,
for transhipment. The net value of the trade of the
port coming under the cognizance of the Foreign
Customs was for 1898 Tls. 49,554,973, for 1897 Tls.
49,934,391, and for 1896 Tl» 46,160,343.
Ample means of communication exist between Canton
and Hongkong, a distance of about ninety- five miles, by
l6o CHINA
foreign steamers plying daily, and a large number of
native craft. There is daily steam communication
with Macao. Steamers also run regularly between
Shanghai, Hongkong, and Canton. There is a safe and
commodious anchorage within 150 yards of the river
wall at Shameen. Canton was connected by telegraph
(an overland line) with Kowloon in 1883, and another
overland line was completed from Canton to Lungchau-
fu, on the Kwangsi and Tonkin frontier, in June, 1884.
The electric light has been introduced into a portion of
the city. A projected railway between Canton and
Kowloon has received the Imperial sanction and a
preliminary survey has been made, but it still remains
a project. The survey by an American syndicate of a
railway route to connect Canton with Hankow was also
made in 1899.
WHAMPOA.
This village was formerly the seat of a large portion
of the foreign trade with Canton, as foreign sailing
vessels are not allowed to go farther up the Pearl
Eiver. The trade in sailing vessels has, however,
dwindled to very small proportions, and Whampoa is
now almost deserted. A branch of the Maritime
Customs is stationed here. The large mud docks
formerly belonging to the Hongkong and Whampoa
Dock Company were sold to the Chinese Government,
and have since been used for the gunboat squadron.
A Government Torpedo S«}^ool has been established
here. * #
The village, known as Bamboo Town, is a dirty and
unattractive place without any feature of interest, but
the scenery around is picturesque and pleasing. Two
lofty pagodas on neighbouring eminences are con-
spicuous objects from the river. The first of these,
called the Whampoa Pagoda, is built on an island
rising abruptly from the river to the height of 100
CHINESE KOWLOON NEW CUSTOMS l6l
feet. It was erected about the year 1598, and is very
much out of repair. A good-sized tree grows from the
brickwork at the summit. The other pagoda, called
the First Bar Pagoda, is nearer to Canton, and occupies
a hill which is considered the guardian hill of the
province. It was built between the years 1621 and
1628 as a palladium to the waterway of the provincial
capital.
The importance of Whampoa is now a thing of the
past. The place will always, however, possess some
interest for foreigners, since the earliest recollections
of foreign commercial intercourse with China are
associated with it, all foreign ships being in old times
compelled to anchor at Whampoa.
CHINESE KOWLOON NEW CUSTOMS.
This is the inclusive name given to the Chinese
Customs stations placed around Hongkong for the
purpose of collecting duty on the trade carried on by
Chinese junks between Hongkong and Chinese ports.
In 1899, when the New Territory was taken over by
Hongkong, the Customs stations had to be removed
from their former locations which had been brought
within the British boundary, and the present stations
are situated at Taishan, Lintin, Shayuchung, and
Samun (Fooniang), besides which there are a number
of frontier patrol-posts from Deep Bay to Mirs Bay.
LAPPA.
Lappa, also called by the Chinese Kung Pak, is an
island, directly opposite the Inner Harbour of Macao,
the distance across being from 1^ to 1^ miles. One of
the stations of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs
is located here, and another on an islet called Malow-
chow. Lappa is under the jurisdiction of the Heungshan
M
l62 CHINA
Magistrate. It possesses no features of interest beyond
the fact that it is the principal Customs station in the
neighbourhood of Macao. The net value of the trade
passing through the Lappa Custom Houses in 1898
was Tls. 12,030,939, in 1897 Tls. 13,143,774, and in
1896 Tls. 12,596,298.
SAMSHUI.
Samshui, one of the ports opened in 1897 under the
Burmah Convention, is situated near the junction of
the West, North, and East Elvers, two miles from the
river bank, its port being Hokow. The town is sur-
rounded by an imposing wall, but the houses are poorly
built and the place is wanting in life. Between the
town and the river is a fine nine-storied Pagoda. The
business centre of the district is Sainam, a large and
well-built town about three miles distant, situated on
a creek leading to Fatshan. An interesting occupation
carried on in Sainam is the tinning of rice-birds, soles,
and game. The rice-birds are caught in reed patches
at night in a bag net, into which the birds are swept
by a rope drawn over the reeds. The season is short,
lasting only for about six weeks in the autumn.
According to the Treaty, Samshui and Kongkun
together constitute the port. The formal opening
took place on the 4th June, 1897. The net value of
the trade of the port coming under the cognizance
of the Foreign Customs, for the year 1898 was
Tls. 1,614,913.
WUCHOW-FU.
Wuchow-fu, opened to foreign trade by the Special
Article of the Burmese Frontier Convention, is situated
on the Sikiang (West Eiver) at a distance of about 220
miles by the present authorised routes from Canton or
Hongkong. It is the principal city of the prefecture
WUCHOW-FU 163
bearing the same name, and is also the seat of the
district magistrate of Ts'ang Wu. The scenery of the
West Eiver is interesting, and in many places fine.
The first portion which demands attention in the
voyage up stream is the Shui Hing Gorge. Here the
river, which lower down is about a mile wide, flowing
through level land, suddenly narrows to about a quarter
of that width, and winds through a pass about five miles
long where mountains rise on each side to a height of
two thousand feet. On leaving the gorge the river again
widens, but hills line the sides all the way to Wuchow,
now and then closing in and forming tortuous defiles, in
some of which the stream appears as a mountain lake,
entrance and exit being alike undistinguishable when
the middle is reached.
The city of Wuchow is situated on the left bank of
the West Eiver at its junction with the Fu or Kweilin
Eiver, a navigable stream which affords communication
with the provincial capital. The population of the place
is about 50,000. The city wall, which climbs the hills
in rear, is about a mile and a half in circumference.
The streets are for the most part mean and dirty. The
business quarter comprises the best. This consists of
two or three streets, which round the corner outside
the city walls at the junction of the two rivers. The
principal would compare favourably with a second-rate
street in Canton, the others are inferior. The annual
inundations which take place here are a peculiar feature
of the place. The West Eiver is affected to a very
great degree by the rainfall, so much so that the differ-
ence between the winter and summer levels of the water
is as much as sixty feet. The summer freshets are a
great source of inconvenience. When the water rises,
sometimes half of the streets and the lower storeys of
the houses in them are flooded, the people have to move
all their belongings upstairs, communication has to be
carried on in boats, and business is seriously interfered
with. But the Chinese do not seem to mind the in-
convenience much. They have gone on century after
1 64 CHINA
century submitting to the same yearly invasion of their
dwellings by the water without the slightest attempt to
improve matters. They simply suspend business and
retire to their upper storeys when the inundations
come, wait there till they subside, and then resume
work. The foreigners who establish themselves here
wUl hardly be content to take things so easily ; they
will require houses above high-water mark, and in a
year or so we may expect to see the city adorned by a
few buildings reaUy suited to the necessities of the
place.
The history of Wuchow presents some points of
interest. The mythical emperor Shun (B.C. 2200),
while on a tour of inspection of his southern domains,
died in the wilds of Ts'ang Wu, and one tradition re-
lates that his grave is to be found in the Great Cloud
Mountain, three miles to the east of the city. Of the
niae divisions into which the Great Yu (b.c. 2250)
divided the empire, Ching Chow was the region lying
between the Tungting Lake and the southern kingdom
of Yiieh, the present Annam, and of Ching Chow,
Ts'ang Wu was an important sub-division. When the
rule of the house of the First Emperor, Chin Shih
Huang, came to an end in B.c. 206, a certain official
known as Chao To took possession of Southern Yiieh
and appointed Chao Kuang, prince of Ts'ang Wu, to
reside at Kuanghsin, an old town which was situated
one mile to the east of the present Wuchow, and which
no longer exists. In the year B.c. 135 Han Wu Ti
despatched one of his generals to conquer Southern
Yiieh, who divided it into seven districts, one of which
was Ts'ang Wu, and placed all under the control of an
officer known as the Governor of Annam, to reside at
Kuangshin, In A.D. 592 the present city of Ts'ang Wu
or Wuchow was built, and thenceforward became the
seat of government. The province of Kwangsi was
first defined in the year 1364 by the last of the Sungs.
In 1465 the office of Governor-General of the Liang
Kwang was instituted by the Ming Emperor Cheng
WUCHOW-FU 165
Hua. This officer resided for some sixty years at
Ts'ang Wu, and then occasionally went to reside at
Shui Hing in Kwangtung, one of the present ports
of call on the river, returning as necessity arose to
Wuchow. Things stood this way at the commence-
ment of the present dynasty, but in 1665 the seat of
provincial government was transferred to Kweilin, and
Wuchow reverted to the status of an ordinary pre-
fectural city. In the autumn of 1857 it fell, after a
siege of a hundred days, into the hands of the Boat
Rebels, who, availing themselves of the anarchy caused
by the Taipings, appear to have harried this and the
neighbouring province for many years. The city was,
however, retaken two years later. Since then the
course of events in Wuchow has not been marked by
anything noteworthy, except the occurrence of a large
fire about the middle of the year 1894, which consumed
the greater portion of the business quarter of the city.
But all the houses destroyed have been rebuilt, and the
only trace of the catastrophe is that furnished by the
superior look of the new buildings.
As regards trade, Wuchow bids fair to be a place of
importance. It is situated at the head of navigation
from the sea and just below where the West Eiver and
Fuho rapids commence. It is thus of necessity a port
of transhipment, and, as such, a centre to which business
will converge. On reference to the Customs returns it
wiU be seen that a good beginning has been made. The
import of foreign goods is already considerable, and will
continue to increase as new districts are opened up by
means of the transit pass. In short, the present of
Wuchow as a treaty port gives every promise of a
prosperous future.
The port was opened on the 4th June, 1897. The
net value of the trade coming under the cognizance of
the Foreign Customs during 1898 was Tls. 4,221,758.
I 66 CHINA
KWANGCHAUWAN
Kwangchauwan is a bay in the province of Kwang-
tuDg, leased, together with its shores for a distance
inland as yet undefined, by France from China. The
French flag was hoisted on the 22nd April, 1898. The
bay lies in lat. 21 deg. 15 min. N. and long. 110 deg.
30 min. E., a'^d is approximately about two hundred
miles W.S.W. from Hongkong. A large island renders
it a completely landlocked harbour, with two narrow
entrances. The harbour is about twenty miles long,
and for about half this length the width is from five to
six miles, but it then narrows to one and a half or two
miles. The place appears to have been imperfectly
surveyed before it was taken over by the French, and
disappointment with the new acquisition has been
expressed on account of the difficulty of the channels
and the small extent of deep water. A river of some
size discharges into Kwangchau Bay, and on this river
is situated the town of Chikhom, a trading centre of
considerable importance, carrying on a large trade by
junks with Macao and Kongmoon. The neighbouring
district is richly cultivated, and it is believed that
minerals exist. The new French territory is separated
by only a low range of hills from the valley of tlie
West Eiver. No permanent official establishment has
as yet been organised pending the completion of the
survey and demarcation. Towards the close of 1899,
Marshal Sou was sent specially from Peking with full
powers to decide upon the delimitation of territory, but
unfortunately just before his arrival two French naval
ensigns were attacked and murdered. The French
strengthened their naval and military forces already on
the scene, to exact reprisals, and fighting ensued in
which about three hundred Chinese were killed —
principally braves sent to preserve order, but generally
believed to provoke hostilities with official connivance.
The demarcation was concluded in December, 1899,
PAKHOt 167
but the questions of responsibility and compensation
for the murder of the French officers and attacks on
the French troops, were to be settled at Peking. The
exact delimitation has not yet been published.
PAKHOI
Pakhoi is one of the ports opened to foreign trade by
the Chefoo Convention in 1876. It is situated on the
Gulf of Tonkin in long. 109 deg. 6 min. E. and lat. 21
deg. 30 min. N. The British Consul hoisted his flag on
the 1st May, 1877, and the foreigners were well received
by the natives. Pakhoi is the port for the important
city of Lienchau, from whence considerable quantities
of foreign piece goods were formerly distributed over
the country lying between the West Eiver and the
seaboard, but now that the West Eiver has been opened
to steam navigation it is expected that the bulk of the
trade will be diverted to that route. The net value of
the trade of Pakhoi in 1898 was Tls. 4,166,059, in
1897 Tls. 4,209,935, and in 1896 Tls. 4,685,138.
The town is situated on a small peninsula and faces
nearly due north. It stands at the foot of a bluff
nearly forty feet high, which deprives it of the south-
west breeze in summer, while in winter it is exposed
to the full force of the north-east monsoon. From the
bluff an extensive, partly cultivated plain stretches, over
which there is' some .sport, snipe, plover, quail, and
pigeons being found in large numbers, while duck and
other water-fowl are not numerous. The climate is
considered to be very salubrious. The estimated
population of the port is 20,000.
No port in China is more easily approached and
entered than that of Pakhoi. The landmarks are con-
spicuous and unmistakeable. The channel is wide and
deep and has no hidden danger to be avoided. The
anchorage is a mile and a half from the town. There
1 68 CHINA
is good landing at high water, but at ebb tide only for
small boats.
The construction of a railway by a French Company
from Pakhoi to Nanning has been authorised, but work
on the project has not yet been commenced. A free
school, under the direction of M. Mercier Baune, has
been opened by the French Government to teach the
French language to the Chinese and others.
HOIHOW (IN HAINAN)
Hoihow is the seaport of the city of Kiung-chow
(the seat of government in the island of Hainan, and
distant from its port about three and a half miles)
which was opened to foreign trade on the 1st April,
1876. The position of the port, though geographi-
cally favourable, is topographically unsuitable for the
development of any extensive commercial transactions,
vessels being compelled to anchor some two miles from
the entrance of the creek, or branch of the main river
upon which Hoihow is situated. The tides are ex-
tremely irregular, and the anchorage is liable to the
visitation of very severe typhoons, being moreover
entirely unprotected from the north. The width of the
Hainan Straits, between Hoihow and the mainland —
the Lien-chau peninsula — is about twelve milis. As
regards health, Hoihow compares favourably with other
parts of Hainan, though fever and ague are said to
prevail to some extent. The port is badly, supplied
with water.
The approaches to the shore are extremely shallow,
so that loading and unloading can only be carried on at
certain states of the tide. Despite this disadvantage,
however, the advent of foreign steamers has given a
considerable impulse to trade.. The town itself contains
about 12,000 souls, and is governed by a Tsan-fu, or
Lieutenant-Colonel; the population of Kiungchow
being 41,000. The native mercantile population, though
HOIHOW {IN HAINAN) 169
respectable, is by no means rich. No foreign settle-
ment has as yet been formed, and with the exception
of the Eoman Catholic Orphanage, erected in 1895,
and the American Presbyterian Mission Hospital and
doctor's residence, the houses occupied by the foreign
residents are Chinese, converted into European habita-
tions by alterations and improvements. H.B.M. Con-
sulate obtained a site after fourteen years' negotiations,
and a consulate building is now (January, 1900) nearlj'-
completed : it is situated to the S.W. of the Hospital.
Towards the end of 1897 a piece of land was granted to
the French Government for the construction of a
Consulate ; this site is situate on the Northern side of
the river and facing Hoihow town. The building was
completed and occupied in July, 1899. Since the
beginning of 1899 a free school has been opened by
the French Government for teaching the French
language to the Chinese, and by the end of the year an
officer from the Tonldn Medical Staff was detailed to
this port for the purpose of giving the natives and
others free attendance and medicine. The foreign
residents at present number about sixty. The net
value of the trade of the port in 1898 was Tls. 3,680,258,
in 1897 Tls. 3,300,239, and in 1896 Tls. 2,760,185. A
large export trade in pigs, poultry, eggs, and provisions
is carried on with Hongkong. A steam plant for
the' preparation of albumen for the European market
was established by a FrMich firm in 1896. It was
bought in 1898 by Messrs A. Schomburg & Co.
A harbour light and one at Lamko (western entrance
of the Hainan Straits) were opened in 1894; and one
at Cape Cami in 1895.
1 70 CHINA
LUNGCHOW
This city is situated at the junction of the Sung-chi
and Kao-ping rivers in lat. 22 deg. 21 min. N., and
long. 106 deg. 45 min. E., near the south-western border
of the province of Kwangsi, and was selected as the
seat of the frontier trade of that province with Tonkin.
The continuation of the two above rivers is known as
Tso-chiang, or left branch of the West Eiver, and it
enters the main stream some 30 miles above Nanning.
The town is prettily placed in a circular valley sur-
rounded by hills, and has a new wall completed in
1887. The population is estimated to number about
22,000. Lungchow, from a military point of view, is
considered, by the Chinese, to be a place of importance,
and considerable bodies of troops are stationed, and the
headquarters of the Provincial Commander-in-Chief
are established, between it and the Tonkin frontier.
It was opened to the Franco-Annamese trade on the
1st June, 1889, but so far the little trade existing has
been of a very petty description, and will continue so
until the Langson railway, which was opened in
December, 1894, is extended to Limgchow. This ex-
tension has been authorised by the Chinese Grovern-
ment, and a further extension to Nanning is in
contemplation. Telegraph communication exists with
Canton and other places down the West Eiver, with
Mengtzii in Yunnan, ma Po-se, and with places in
Tonkin. An establishment of the Imperial Maritime
Customs is maintained here. The net value of the
trade coming under the cognizance of the Foreign
Customs was for 1898 Tls. 134.885, for 1897 Tls.
108,947, and for 1896 Tls. 111,328.
MENGTSZ 171
MENGTSZ
This is a district city in south-east Yunnan, and
together with Man-hao, a village on the left bank of
the Eed Eiver, was opened to trade by the Additional
Convention to the French Treaty of Tientsin of the
25th April, 1886, signed' at Peking on the 26th June,
1887. The town is two days' journey from Man-hao
and about six days' from the frontier of Tonkin at
Laokay, and is beautifully situated, being built on a
cultivated plateau twenty miles long by about twelve
miles in breadth, encircled by picturesque mountains,
and 4580 feet above the level of the sea. It has a
population of about 12,000 persons, but before the
Mahommedan rebellion was a place of much more
importance, as the numerous well-built temples, many
of them now in ruins, still testify. It is, however, a
considerable commercial emporium even now, and is
becoming an important centre for the distribution of
foreign goods imported via Tonkin. The French
Consul hoisted his flag at Mengtsz on the 30th April,
1889, and the Customs station was opened in the
following August. The value of the trade coming
under the cognizance of the Foreign Customs for 1898
was Tls. 3,672,650, for 1897 Tls. 3,451,765, and for
1896 Tls. 2,476,675. The Chinese merchants avail
themselves largely of the advantages offered by the
transit pass system, and the value of goods sent into
the interior under transit passes during the year 1898
amounted to Tls. 2,325,431 or about 94 per cent, of the
quantity imported. The climate of Mengtsz is temperate
and salubrious, though every year, principally in the hot
season, the plague makes numerous victims among the
natives. In 1898 the plague appeared at the end of
June and disappeared early in September. The number
of victims probably did not exceed 150 in the city
and neighbouring villages, but no really trustworthy
172 CHINA
Statistics are obtainable. The mortality was certainly
the lowest since the plague appeared at Mengtsz.
During the winter good sport is obtained, snipe and
wild-fowl being abundant in the plain, and some
pheasants and partridges in the hilly districts. A new
French Consulate was finished in 1893, new dwelling-
houses for members of the Customs service in 1894, and
a new Custom House in the spring of 1895. All these
buildings are outside the East gate of the city. On the
22nd June, 1899, a riot occurred in the course of which
the Customs House and French Consulate were looted.
No foreign merchants have as yet started business in
Mengtsz. A railway from Laokay to Yunnanfu ma
Mengtsz is projected and tenders for the work have
been invited by the Tonkin Government.
HOKOW
Hokow was opened to foreign trade by the Supple-
mentary Convention between China and France of 20th
June, 1895. A French Vice-consulate was established
in August, 1896, which is subordinate to the Mengtsz
Consulate, and an office of the Customs under the con-
trol of the Mengtsz Customs was opened at Hokow on
1st July, 1897. Hokow is picturesquely situated on
the left bank of the Ked Eiver, at its junction with the
Nanhsi Eiver and is immediately opposite Laokay, an
important garrison town in Tonkin. The village has
some 4000 inhabitants, who live in bamboo houses and
huts with thatched roofs. Hokow is about 420 li from
Mengtsz by land. The total value of the trade of
Hokow from July to December, 1897, was only
Hk. Tls. 43,807. The value of the trade is not
separately stated in the Mengtsz Customs report for
1898, except that the value of the transit trade is given
as Tls. 39,338.
SZEMAO 173
SZEMAO
Szemao, opened to the Tonkin frontier trade by the
Gerard Convention of 1895, and to British trade by the
Burmah Convention of 1896, is situated in the south-
western part of the Province of Yunnan, in latitude
22 deg. 47 min. 29 sec. N. and longitude 100 deg.
46 min. E. It is a sub-prefectural walled town, built
on a gently rising ground overlooking a well-cultivated
plain. The elevation is 4700 feet above the sea level,
and the population is estimated to be about 15,000.
The climate is delightful, the temperature rarely ex-
ceeding 80 degrees (Fahr.) during the summer and
seldom falling below 50 degrees in the winter months.
The plague, such a common visitor throughout Yunnan,
is as yet unknown in Szemao. The place is distant
from both Yunnan-fu (the capital of the province) and
Mengtsz eighteen days, and from the frontier eight
to twelve days. It was opened in the early part
of 1897, and so far has not fulfilled the expecta-
tions of its potential importance as a trading centre.
The value of the trade of Szemao for 1898 was
Tls. 261,719 as compared with Tls. 185,974 in 1897.
No foreign traders reside at Szemao, the trade
being entirely in the hands of local merchants, who
have no agencies in either Tonkin or Burmah.
The principal article imported is raw cotton, which
comes from the British Shan States, particularly from
Keng Tung. A telegraph line from Tiing Hai via Yuan
Chiang and Pu Erh-fu, connects Szemao with the
existing Chinese overland telegraphs, and another one
from Szemao to " Moung Hou " (the first French post
across the frontier) makes a junction with the Tonkin
lines. A few years ago there was much talk about
connecting Szemao by railway with Burmah, but as the
trade will probably never be sufficient to justify such
an expensive undertaking, the idea seems to have been
given up. During the winter of 1898-99 the Burmah
1 74 CHINA
Yunnan frontier from Bhamo to the Kunlung Ferry,
and from a point west of Meng Lem to the Mekong
was properly defined. There yet remains that portion
of the boundary running through the territory of the
Kawas, a savage tribe of head-hunters who are likely
to give some trouble to the Frontier Commission.
Work was commenced during the dry winter season of
1899.
HONGKONG
HONGKONG
The Island of Hongkong, the most eastern of British
possessions, is situate off the coast of the Kwangtung
province, near the mouth of the Canton river. It is
distant about 40 miles from Macao and 90 from Canton,
and lies between 22 deg. 9. min. and 22 deg. 17 min.
N. lat. and 114 deg. 5 min. and 114 deg. 18 min. E. long.
The Chinese characters representing the name of the
island (Heung Kong) may be read as signifying either
Good Harbour or Fragrant Streams.
History and Government.
Before the British ensign was hoisted on Possession
Point the island can hardly be said to have had any
history, and what little attaches to it is very obscure.
Scantily peopled by fishermen and agriculturists, it was
neveir the scene of stirring events, and was little affected
by dynastic or political changes. It is alleged, however,
that after the fall of the Mings in 1628 some of the
Emperor's followers found shelter in the forests of
Hongkong from the fury of the Manchus. The penin-
sula of British Kowloon has more claim to association
with Chinese history. In the year a.d. 1287 it is
recorded that the last Emperor of the Sung dynasty
when flying from Kublai Khan, the Mongol conqueror,
took refuge in a cave in Kowloon, and an inscription
on the rock above is said to record the fact. The in-
scription consists of the characters Sung Wong Toi,
N
1 78 HONGKONG
meaning the Sung Emperor's Pavilion. On the cession
of the territory to Great Britain the natives petitioned
the Hongkong Government that the rock might not be
blasted or otherwise injured, on account of the tradition
connecting it with the Imperial personage above men-
tioned. In 1898 a resolution was passed by the Legis-
lation Council preserving the land on which the rock
stands for the benefit of the public in perpetuity.
Hongkong is a Crown Colony and was ceded to
Great Britain by the Chinese Government in 1841. In
the troubles which preceded the first war with China
the necessity of having some place on the coast whence
British trade might be protected and controlled, and
where officials and merchants might be free from the
insulting and humiliating requirements of the Chinese
Authorities, became painfuUy evident. As early as
1834 Lord Napier, smarting under his insolent treat-
ment by the Viceroy at Canton, urged the Hpme
Government to send a force from India to support the
dignity of his commission. "A little armament," he
wrote, " should enter the China seas with the first of the
south-west monsoon, and on arriving should take pos-
session of the island of Hongkong, in the eastern
entrance of the Canton river, which is admirably
adapted for every purpose." Two years later Sir George
Eobinson, endorsing the opinion of Lord Napier that
nothing but force could better our position in China,
advised " the occupation of one of the islands in this
neighbourhood, so singularly adapted by nature in every
respect for commercial purposes." In the early part of
1839 affairs approached a crisis, and on the 22nd
March, Captain ElUot, the Chief Superintendent of
Trade, requii'ed that all the ships of Her Majesty's
subjects at the outer anchorages of Canton should
proceed forthwith to Hongkong, and, hoisting their
national colours, be prepared to resist every act of
aggression on the part of the Chinese Government.
When the British community left Canton, Macao
afforded them a temporary asylum, but their presence
HONGKONG 1 79
there was made the occasion by the Chinese Govern-
ment of threatening demonstrations against that settle-
ment. In a despatch dated 6th May, 1839, Captain
Elliot wrote to Lord Palmerston : — " The safety of
Macao is, in point of fact, an object of secondary
moment to the Portuguese Government, but to that of
Her Majesty it may be said to be of indispensable
necessity, and most particularly at this moment ; " and
he urged upon his Lordship " the strong necessity of
concluding some immediate arrangement with the
Government of His Most Faithful Majesty, either for
the cession of the Portuguese rights at Macao, or for
the effectual defence of the place, and its appropriation
to British uses by means of a subsidiary Convention."
Happily for the permanent interests of British trade in
China this suggestion came to nothing, and Great
Britain found a much superior lodgment at Hongkong.
The unfortunate homicide of a Chinaman in a riot at
Hongkong between British and American seamen and
natives precipitated events, and in view of the measures
taken by the Chinese in reference to Macao, Captain
Elliot felt that he ought no longer to compromise the
safety of that settlement by remaining there. He
accordingly left for Hongkong on the 24th August,
1839, Mrs. Elliot and her child having previously
embarked. It was hoped that his own departure, with
the of&cers of his establishment, might satisfy the
Chinese, but it soon became evident that they intended
to expel all the EngUsh from Macao. It was accordingly
determined that they should leave, and on the 25th
August the exodus took place. The whole of the
British community (with the exception of a few sick
left behind in hospital) embarked, and under the
convoy of H.M.S. Volage arrived safely at Hongkong.
At that time there was, of course, no town, and the
community had to reside on board ship. The next
measure of the Chinese was to stop supplies of food;
the water also was reported to be poisoned, a placard
being put up on shore warning Chinese against drinking
l8o HONGKONG
it. This led to a miniature naval battle in Kowlooo
Bay. On the 4th September Captain Elliot, in the
cutter Louise, accompanied by the Pearl, a small armed
vessel, and the pinnace of the Volage, went to Kowloon,
where there were three large men-of-war junks whose
presence prevented the regular supplies of food. A
written remonstrance was sent off to the junk of the
commanding mandarin. After six hours of delay and
irritating evasion a boat was sent on shore to a distant
part of the bay with money to purchase supplies, which
the party succeeded in doing, and they were on the
point of bringing their purchases away when some
mandarin runners approached and obliged the natives
to take back their provisions. The English returned
with this intelligence, and Captain Elliot, greatly
provoked, opened fire on the three junks. It was
answered with spirit by the junks and a battery on
shore. After a lire of almost half an hour the English
force hauled off, from the failure of ammunition, for
anticipating no serious results they had not come
prepared for them. It was evident, however. Captain
Elliot says in his account of the engagement, that the
junks had suffered considerably, and after a delay of
about three-quarters of an hour, they weighed and
made sail from under the protection of the battery,
with the obvious purpose of making their escape. By
this time the English had made cartridges, and they
drove the junks back to their former position. Evening
was now closing in, and in the morning it was decided,
for reasons of policy, not to renew the attack. A com-
plete relaxation of the interdict against the supply of
provisions followed. Some little time after this event
an arrangement for the resumption of the trade was
arrived at, and there was a partial return to residence
at Macao. The arrangement was of but a few weeks'
duration, however, and on the 3rd November a naval
engagement took place off Chuenpee, when the Chinese
retired in great distress. The British ships returned to
Macao, arriving on the evening of the same day, and
HONGKONG l8t
arrangements were immediately made for the embarka-
tion of those of Her Majesty's subjects there who
thought it safest to retire, and on the evening of the
4th November they arrived at Hongkong.
Captain Elliot considered the anchorage of Hong-
kong unsafe, as being " exposed to attack from several
quarters," and already, on the 26th October, His
Excellency had required the removal of the British
merchant shipping to Tong-Koo, which he deemed
safer. The shipping community did not share this
opinion, and on the same day that the notice appeared
an address, signed by the masters of thirty-six vessels,
was presented to Captain Elliot requesting that they
might be allowed to remain at Hongkong. On the
8th November H.M.'s Plenipotentiary replied, adhering
to his former decision. Thereupon another remonstrance
was addressed to him, signed by "twenty firms, the
agents for Lloyd's, and for eleven Insurance Offices."
Captain Elliot, however, still adhered to his decision,
and a few days afterwards the removal to Tong-Koo
took place.
In 1840 the expedition arrived, and Hongkong became
the headquarters of Her Majesty's forces.
On the 20th January, 1841, H.M.'s Plenipotentiary
issued a circular to H.M.'s subjects announcing the
conclusion of preliminary arrangements between the
Imperial Commissioner, Keshen, and himself. One
of the terms was stated in the circular as follows : — ■
" 1. The cession of the island and harbour of Hongkong
to the British Crown. All just charges and duties to
the Empire upon the commerce carried on there to be
paid as if the trade were conducted at Whampoa."
On the 26th January, the island was accordingly taken
formal possession of in the name of Her Majesty the
Queen. The treaty was subsequently repudiated by
both parties, and it was not until the conclusion of the
Nanking Treaty in 1842, that the Chinese Government
formally recognised the cession of the island. In the
mean time it was held by the British— -who had come
1 82 HONGKONG
to stay — and on the 1st May, 1841, the Public Notice
and Declaration regarding the occupation of Hongkong
■was published. On the 7th May of the same year,
1841, the first number of the Hongkong Gazette was
published, printed at the American Mission Press,
Macao. This first number contained the notification of
the appointment (dated 30th April) of Captain William
Caine, of Her Majesty's 26th (Cameronian) Regiment
of Infantry, as Chief Magistrate, the warrant being
under the hand of Charles Elliot, Esquire, Her Majesty's
Plenipotentiary, etc., etc., "charged with the govern-
ment of the island of Hongkong." Captain Elliot's
idea was that the island should be held on similar
terms to those on which Macao was at that time held
by the Portuguese, and the Chief Magistrate, instead of
being charged to administer British law, was authorised
and required "to exercise authority, according to the
laws, customs, and usages of China, as near as may be
(every description of torture excepted), for the preserva-
tion of the peace and the protection of life and property,
over all the native inhabitants in the said island and
the harbours thereof; " and over other persons according
to British police law. The first land sale took place
on the 14th June, and building thereafter proceeded
rapidly, the population of the new town at the end of
the year being estimated at 15,000. On the 6th Feb-
ruary, 1842, Hongkong was formally declared a free
port by Sir Henry Pottinger, who had succeeded Captain
Elliot as Plenipotentiary. Until the signing of the
treaty, however, the ultimate fate of the new settle-
ment remained in doubt. Sir Kobert Peel, when asked
in the House of Commons whether it was the intention
of Her Majesty's Government to properly colonise the
place or give it up, declined to answer what he deemed
an unparliamentary question during a period of open
war with the country by whom the cession of the
island was both made iiiul repudiated. The Treaty of
Nanking, Imwever, settled all doubts. On the 23rd
June, 1843, Keying, the Imperial Conimissioner, arrived
HONGKONG 1 83
in Hongkong, for the exchange of the ratifications of
the treaty, and the ceremony took place in the Council
room on the 26th of that month, and immediately
afterwards the Eoyal Charter, dated 5th April, 1843,
erecting the island into a separate colony, was read,
and Sir Henry Pottinger took the oaths of office as
Governor. At first progress was rapid. The Queen's
Eoad was laid out for a length of between three and
four miles, and buildings rose rapidly. But a check
was received owing to the unhealthy conditions which
were developed by the breaking of the malarious soil,
and in 1844, soon after the arrival of Sir John Davis,
who assumed the government in June, the advisability
of abandoning the island altogether as a colony was
seriously discussed. Mr. Montgomery Martin, H.M.'s
Treasurer, drew up a long report, in which he earnestly
recommended the abandonment of a place which, he
believed, would never be habitable for Europeans,
instancing the case of the 98th Eegiment, which lost
257 men by death in twenty-one months, and of the
Eoyal Artillery, which in two years lost 51 out of a
strength of 135, and gave it as his opinion that it was
a delusion to hope that Hongkong could ever become
a commercial emporium like Singapore. Sir John
Davis, in a despatch dated April, 1845, strongly com-
bated Mr. Martin's pessimist conclusions and expressed
a firm belief that time alone was required for the
development of the colony and for the correction of
some of the evils which hindered its early progress.
Sir John (who died in November, 1890, in his ninety-
sixth year) lived to see his predictions most amply
verified, and in after years must have reflected with
satisfaction on the fact that his views prevailed in
Downiug Street. On the 26th May, 1846, the Hong-
kong Club-house was opened with a ball, and was
occupied by the Club for over fifty years, being vacated
in July, 1897, when the Club moved into new and
more commodious premises on the New Praya. Sir
John Davis resigned in January, 1848, and left the
184 HONGKONG
colony on the 30th March of that year, Major-General
Stavely administering the government until the arrival,
a few weeks later, of Sir George (then Mr.) Bonham.
During Sir George Bonham's administration, which
lasted, with two intervals, until April, 1854, the colony
continued to progress, but the garrison and residents
still suffered severely from malaria. On the 13th
April, 1854, Sir John Bowring took the oaths as
Governor, and held the reins until May, 1859. Sir
John Bowring was the last Governor who united that
office with that of Minister Plenipotentiary and Super-
intendent of British Trade in China. During his
administration various public works were constructed,
and the Bowrington Canal made. In September,
1859, Sir Hercules Eobinson arrived and assumed the
administration. In 1860 the peninsula of Kowloon
was placed under British control, and soon afterwards
became a great camp, the English and French troops
of the Allied Expeditionary Force being for some time
quartered there. The principal work effected during
the Government of Sir Hercules Eobinson was the
construction of the original Praya wall, in connection
with which an extensive reclamation of land from the
sea was made. Prior to that time the marine lot-
holders had the entire control of the sea frontage of
their lots, and no public road, properly speaking, existed
along the water frontage. In 1862 the Clock Tower
was completed, and the Hongkong Mint was erected,
but owing to the loss attending its working it was
closed early in 1864. In March, 1865, Sir Hercules
Eobinson left the Colony, and Mi-.] Mercer, Colonial
Secretary, became Acting Governor until the arrival,
in March, 1866, of Sir Eichard MaoDonnell. In
November, 1867, a great fire occurred, which swept
the whole district between the Queen's Eoad and the
Praya, from the Cross Roads to the Harbour Master's
Office. During Sir Eichai'd MacDonneU's vigorous
administration the revenue of the Colony, which had
fallen much below the expenditure, was augmented by
HONGKONG 1 85
the imposition of the stamp duties and other measures.
One of His Excellency's last ofScial acts was to preside
at the opening, in February, 1872, of the Tung Wa
(Chinese) Hospital. In April, 1872, Sir Arthur Ken-
nedy arrived and assumed the reins of Government,
which he held with such dexterity that he acquired the
title of " good Sir Arthur," and a bronze statue of him
has been erected in the Public Gardens. Under his
administration the Colony prospered, but the year
1874 was made memorable in Colonial annals by one
of the most destructive typhoons which has ever visited
it, causing enormous damage and the loss of thousands
of lives. The peaceful reign of Sir Arthur Kennedy
was followed by the stormy administration of Sir John
Pope Hennessy, who arrived in April, 1877, and left in
March, 1882. In this interval the trade of the Colony
increased greatly and Governor Hennessy accumulated
a large surplus, but public works made little progress,
the Breakwater at Causeway Bay being the principal
work completed during his administration, while the
Observatory was projected. On Christmas Day, 1878,
a fire broke out in the Central District of Victoria
which destroyed 368 houses and entailed enormous loss
on the community. On Sir John's departure Sir William
(then Mr.) Marsh, the Colonial Secretary, assumed the
government, and affairs proceeded placidly until the
arrival, in March, 1883, of Sir George Bowen. His
advent was the signal for great activity in the prosecu-
tion of public works, amongst others being the Tytam
Waterworks, the Victoria College, the Lunatic Asylum,
and the enlargement of the Government Civil Hospital.
He was also the means of securing to the residents the
privilege of nominating two of the unofficial members
of the Legislative Council. Sir George Bowen left
Hongkong on the 19th December, 1885, and another
interregnum followed. Mr. Marsh administered the
government until April, 1887, when he retired from
the service, and Major-General Cameron assumed the
reins until the arrival of Governor Sir William Des
1 86 HONGKONG
Vceux in October of the same year. The Colony
steadily progressed, though naturally with some fluctu-
ations in its prosperity, until in 1889, when, writing to
the Secretary of State on its condition and prospects.
Sir William Des Vceux was able to remark, with
obvious satisfaction : — " It may be doubted whether
the evidences of material and moral achievement,
presented as it were in a focus, make anywhere a more
forcible appeal to eye and imagination, and whether
any other spot on the earth is thus more likely to
excite or much more fully justifies pride in the name
of Englishman." After that date a period of deep
depression, arising partly from the fluctuations of
exchange, partly from over-speculation, and partly from
other causes, was experienced, and continued for five
years. Sir William Des Vceux resigned the govern-
ment on the 7th May, 1891, and in the absence of the
Colonial Secretary Major- General Digby Barker was
sworn in as Acting Governor. Sir William Eobinson
was appointed Governor, and arrived in the Colony ou
the 10th December, 1891. The year 1894 wiU be
memorable in the annals of the Colony as the disastrous
year of the plague. The disease, which is endemic in
Yunnan, and some years previously had appeared at
Pakhoi, this year made its appearance at Canton, and
from there was introduced to Hongkong. The Colony
was declared infected on the 10th May, and the
mortality rapidly increased imtU at one time it reached
more than a hundred a day. Energetic measures were
taken to cope with the disease, a system of house-to-
house visitation being established by means of which
all cases were promptly discovered and at once removed
to hospital or, where death had already taken place,
buried, and every house in the Chinese quarters was
whitewashed and cleansed. Special hospitals were
erected and the medical stall' was augmented by
additions from the Ai-my and Navy and the Coast
Ports. The Colony was especially indebted to the
Shropshire Light Infantry for the services of about
HONGKONG 1 87
three hundred volunteers from the regiment, who were
engaged in the house-to-house visitation and cleansing.
Captain Vesey while engaged in this work contracted
the disease and died from it, and one sergeant and four
privates also suffered from it. The other corps of the
Garrison as well as the Navy likewise lent assistance.
Amongst other measures taken to combat the disease,
a portion of the Taipingshan district, where the cases
were most numerous, was cleared of its inhabitants, for
whom accommodation was provided elsewhere, and the
property in the condemned area was subsequently
resumed by the Crown, the intention being that it shall
be reconstructed in accordance with sanitary require-
ments. The disease reached its climax on the 7th
June, when 107 deaths and 69 new cases were reported.
After that date its virulence decreased, and on the
3rd September the proclamation declaring the Colony
infected was withdrawn. The total number of deaths
recorded was 2547. In the mean time the trade of the
Colony had suffered severely. Large numbers of the
natives fled, it being estimated that the population was
reduced at one time by no less than 80,000, and the
usually busy Queen's Eoad appeared almost deserted.
As the disease waned the population returned, business
was gradually resumed, and with the withdrawal of the
quarantine imposed at the other ports vessels which
had for the time being passed by Hongkong resumed
their regular calls. In 1896 the disease again made
its appearance, but was much less virulent than in
1894, and in 1898 there was another visitation, in con-
nection with which two of the sisters of the Government
Civil Hospital lost their lives, having contracted the
disease while in the discharge of their duties. The
year 1899 saw still another visitation, the number of
deaths amounting to over 1400. A vigorous policy
of sanitation is now being carried out. Sir William
Eobinson left Hongkong on the 1st February, 1898,
and until the arrival of Sir Henry Blake on 25th
November, 1898, the Government was administered by
Major-General Wilsone Black.
1 88 HONGKONG
The following is a list of those who have adminis-
tered the Government from the date on which the
Island was erected into a Colony : —
1843. Sir Henry Pottinger, Bart., o.c.b.
1844. Sir John Francis Davis, Bart., k.c.b.
1848. Samuel George Bonham, o.b.
1851. Major-General W. Jervois (Lieut-Governor).
1851. Sir S. George Bonham, Bart., k.c.b.
1852. John Bowring, ll.d. (Acting).
1853. Sir S. George Bonham, Bart., k.c.b.
1854. Sir John Bowring, ll.d.
1854. Lieut.-Golonel Wm. Caine (Lieut.-Governor).
1855. Sir John Bowring, Knight, ll.d.
1859. Colonel Caine (Lieut. -Governor).
1859. Sir Hercules G. B. Robinson, Knight.
1862. William Thomas Mercer (Acting).
1864. Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, Knight
1865. William Thomas Mercer (Acting).
1866. Sir Richard Graves MacDonnell, Knight c.b.
1870. Major-General H. W. Whitfeild (Lieut-Governor).
1871. Sir Richard G. MacDonnell, k.c.m.g., c.b.
1872. Sir Arthur E. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., o.b.
1875. John Gardiner Austin (Administrator).
1876. Sir Arthur E. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., c.b.
1877. Sir John Pope Hennessy, k.c.m.g.
1882. William Henry Marsh, c.m.q. (Administrator).
1883. Sir George Ferguson Bowen, g.c.m.q.
1885. Wm. Henry Marsh, c.m.g. (Administrator).
1887. Major-General W. G. Cameron, c.b. (Administrator).
1887. Sir George William Des Voeux, k.c.m.g.
1890. Francis Fleming, c.^i.o. (Administrator).
1890. Sir George William Des Voeux, K.c.if.G.
1891. Major-General G. Digby Barker, c.b. (Administrator).
1891. Sir William Robinson, g.c.m.g.
1898. Major-General Wilsone Black, c.b. (Admmistrator).
1898. Sir Henry Arthur Blake, o.c.m.g.
The Government is administered by a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council of five oflBcials and two
unofficials. The Legislative Council is presided over
by the Governor, and is composed of the Officer Com-
manding the Troops, the Colonial Secretary (who also
holds the office of Registrar-General), the Attorney-
General, the Treasurer, the Director of Public Works,
the Harbour Master, the Captain Superintendent ot
HONGKONG 1 89
Police, and six unofficial members, one of whom is
elected by the Chamber of Commerce and another by
the Justices of the Peace. The other four, two of
whom are Chinese, but British subjects, are appointed
by the Government.
Finances.
The revenue for 1898 was $2,918,159, being an
increase of $231,245 on the revenue of the previous
year, and the ordinary expenditure was $2,841,805, in
addition to which an expenditure of $135,846 on extra-
ordinary public works chargeable against the loan was
incurred. The Colony has a small public debt, a loan
of £200,000 having been contracted in 1886. Another
loan of £200,000 was contracted in 1893, and in 1894
the unredeemed balance of the first loan was converted
from 4 per cent, debentures into Z\ inscribed stock,
thus bringing it into uniformity with the loan raised
in 1893. The public debt now stands at £341,800,
repayment of which is provided for by a sinking
fund.
The annual rateable value of the city of Victoria is
$4,241,919, that of Kowloon (not including the New
Territory) $418,977, and that of the various villages on
the island and the Hill District $325,938.
Desceiption.
The island is about 11 miles long and from 2 to 5
broad ; its circumference is about 27 miles. It consists
of a broken ridge of lofty hills, with few valleys of any
extent and scarcely any ground available for cultiva-
tion. The only valleys worthy of the name are those
of Wong-nai Chung and Little Hongkong, both of which
are remarkably beautiful and well wooded, being, in
fact, the only parts where any considerable arborescent
vegetation was formerly to be found. The island is
well watered by numerous streams, many of which are
190 HONGKONG
perennial. The city and suburbs are supplied with
water from the Pokfolum, Tytam, and Wong-nai Chung
reservoirs. The first-named, constructed in 1866-69,
has a storage capacity of sixty-eight million gallons,
while the Tytam reservoir, constructed in 1883-88,
and extended in 1896, has an area of about 29 acres
and a storage capacity of about three hundred and
ninety million gallons. From the Tytam reservoir the
water is conveyed into town by means of a tunnel a
mile and one-third in length and a conduit along the
hillside some 400 feet above the sea level and nearly
four miles in length, on which a fine road — called the
Bowen Road — has been formed, which commands the
most charming views of the city and the eastern dis-
trict, and is a favourite resort of pedestrians. In many
parts the conduit is carried over the ravines and rocks
by ornamental stone bridges, one of which, above
Wanchai, has twenty-three arches. The Wong-wai
Chung reservoir, completed in 1899, has a capacity of
twenty-seven million gallons.
The natural productions of the Colony are few and
unimportant. There is little land suitable for tillage,
and nothing is grown but a little rice and some vege-
tables near the outlying villages. There are large
granite quarries, both on the island and in Kowloon, and
there is a small export of this stone. A bed of fire-clay
exists at Deep Water Bay, and bricks and earthenware
pipes are manufactured from it. The forests now
growing up and in course of being planted may one day
become a source of revenue.
The approaches to the port are fairly well lighted.
A lighthouse on Green Island lights the western
entrance of the harbour, the light being a fixed dioptric
one of the fourth order, visible at a distance of fourteen
miles ; and the eastern approach is indicated by a
group-flashing dioptric light of the first order, visible at
a distance of twenty-two miles, erected by the Chinese
Government on Waglan Island, while a smaller light
on Gape CoUinson, visible at a distance of eight miles,
HONGKONG I9I
assists navigators to make the Ly-ee-mun Pass. A
lighthouse on Gap Eock, about thirty miles to the
south, was completed and first displayed its beacon on
the 1st April, 1892 ; it is connected with the port by a
cable, and the approach of vessels is signalled from it
to the Post Ofi&ce.
The harbour of Hongkong is one of the finest and
most beautiful in the world, having an area of ten
square miles, and, with its diversified scenery and
varied shipping, presents an animated and imposing
spectacle. It consists of the sheet of water between
the island and the mainland, and is enclosed on all
sides by lofty hills, formerly destitute of foliage, but
the slopes are gradually becoming clothed with yoimg
forests, the result of the afforestation scheme of the
Government. The city of Victoria is magnificently
situated, the houses, many of them large and hand-
some, rising, tier upon tier, from the water's edge to a
height of over four hundred feet on the face of the
Peak, while many bungalows are visible on the very
summit of the hills. Seen from the water at night,
when lamps twinkle among the trees and houses, the
city, spreading along the shore for upwards of four
miles, affords a sight not to be forgotten.
Nor on landing are the favourable impressions of the
stranger dissipated or lessened. The city is fairly well
built, the roads and streets are for the most part
admirably made and kept, and many of the thorough-
fares delightfully shaded with well-grown trees. The
European business quarter occupies the middle of the
city, from Pottinger Street to the City Hall, but with
the exception of this limited area almost all the lower
levels, especially the Western District, are covered by
a dense mass of Chinese shops and tenements. The
Botanic Gardens are situated just above Government
House, and are beautifully laid out in terraces, slopes,
and walks, with parterres of flowers. A handsome
fountain adorns the second terrace, around which the
European children and their amahs resort daily.
192 HONGKONG
There i8 a band-stand, presented by the Parsee com-
munity, some aviaries, orchid houses, and ferneries, and
seats are provided in every spot where a view is obtain-
able or shade afforded by the varied foliage. A fine
bronze statue of Sir Arthur Kennedy, Governor of the
Colony 1872-76, erected by public subscription, stands
above the second terrace looking down on the foimtain.
It was unveiled in November, 1887, by Governor Sir
William Des Vceux. The chief public building is the
City Hall, erected in 1866-69 by subscription ; it con-
tains an elegant theatre, numerous large rooms used for
balls and public meetings, an excellent and valuable
Library, and a Museum yearly increasing in impor-
tance. In front of the main entrance is a large fountain
presented in August, 1864, by Mr. John Dent, a
merchant of the Colony. Eastward of the City Hall is
a fine open space or lung in the shape of the Parade
Ground south of the road and of the Cricket Ground
on the north. The latter is furnished with a neat
Pavilion, and the turf is kept in perfect order. The
Government Offices, Supreme Court House, and Post
Office are plain but substantial edifices. Government
House occupies a commanding situation, in picturesque
grounds pleasingly laid out, in the centre of the city.
The Gaol is a large and massive structure. The Police
Barracks and Central Station adjoin the Gaol, as does the
Magistracy, a small and inconvenient structure. The
Police Force numbers over 900, of whom 156 are Euro-
peans, 350 Indians, and 400 Chinese. The Lunatic
Asylum consists of two small buildings, one for Europeans
and the other for Chinese, below the Bonham Boad. The
Government Civil Hospital is a large and well-designed
building affording extensive accommodation, situated in
the Western part of the town. The Alice Memorial
Hospital, situated at the corner of Hollywood Eoad and
Aberdeen Street, is a useful and philanthropic institu-
tion, which is also the headquarters of the Hongkong
College of Medicine for Chinese ; affiliated with it is
the Nethersole Hospital on Bonham Eoad. The Royal
HOKGKdNG. KOWLCJON PENINSULA.
IliiKGKuNG IIAIiDijUR.
[Page 192.
HONGKONG 193
Naval Hospital occupies a small eminence near Bow-
rington. The Queen's College, a handsome and com-
modious structure, which stands on a fine site, having
its chief frontage on Staunton Street, is the home of the
chief Government educational institution in the colony.
It was opened in 1889. The Tung Wa Hospital, a
Chinese institution, occupies a large and roomy build-
ing. The Barracks for the garrison are extensive, and
constructed with great regard to the health and comfort
of the troops, and the buildings belonging to the
Naval Establishment are substantial and spacious. The
cantonments lie, on both sides of the Queen's Eoad,
between the Cricket Ground and Arsenal Street,
Wanchai. There are also extensive Barracks at
Kowloon, in which the "Hongkong Kegiment" are
quartered ; and a magnificent sanatorium (formerly the
Mount Austin Hotel) at the Peak for the European
troops. Headquarter House, the residence of the
General in Command of the Troops, occupies a pleasant
elevation overlooking the cantonments. A new and
commodious Central Market was opened in 1895. The
building of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank is large,
handsome, and massive, and would do credit to any city.
It occupies a fine site next to the City Hall, and has
frontages on Queen's Eoad and Connaught Eoad. The
exterior walls and elegant fluted pillars are of dressed
granite, and the offices on the Queen's Eoad frontage
are crowned with a large dome. An extensive reclama-
tion along the city water frontage from West Point to
Murray Eoad is now approaching completion, and the
various sections as they are ready are being rapidly
built upon. On the eastern section a handsome build-
ing for the Hongkong Club was finished in 1897, and
was occupied in Jvdy of that year. Near the Club
stands the Jubilee statue of Her Majesty the Queen,
the erection of which was postponed until this site
became available ; it was unveiled on the 28th May,
1896. The statue represents Her Majesty in a sitting
posture, and is of bronze enclosed in a stone canopy,
o
194 HONGKONG
The Clock Tower, near Pedder's Wharf, was erected by
public subscription in 1862, and the illuminated clock
was presented to the Colony by the firm of Messrs.
Douglas Lapraik & Co. The tower, though of fair pro-
portions and height, is now somewhat dwarfed by the
lofty new building of the Hongkong Hotel
The chief religious buildings are : St. John's Cathe-
dral (Anglican), erected in the year 1842, occupies a
commanding site above the Parade Ground, and is a
Gothic church of considerable size but with few pre-
tensions to architecture. It has a square tower, with
pinnacles, over the western porch, and possesses a peal
of bells. A new chancel was built in 1869-70, the
foundation stone of which was laid by the Duke of
Edinburgh on the 16th November, 1869. A handsome
stained window in the east end, over the altar, to the
memory of the late Mr. Douglas Lapraik, another in
the north transept erected in 1892 to the memory of the
late Dr. Stewart, formerly Colonial Secretary, one in
the south transept to the memory of those who perished
in the wreck of the Bokhara, and another to the
memory of the Hospital Sisters, who died in 1898, are
the chief adornments of the interior. It also possesses
a fine three-manual organ containing 47 stops, erected
in 1887. St. Peter's (Seamen's) Church, at West Point,
close to the Sailors' Home, is a neat Gothic erection
with a spire. It also has a stained glass window, pre-
sented in 1878. St. Stephen's Church, for Chinese,
was built in 1892. It is a neat building in red brick
with white facings, with a tower and spire about 80
feet high, standing on the Pokfolum Eoad side of the
Church Mission compound. Union Church, a pleasing
edifice in the Italian style of architecture, with a spire,
and containing accommodation for about 500 persons,
formerly stood in Staunton Street, but was rebuilt in
1890, on the plan of the old building, on a new site
above the Kennedy Eoad, together with a parsonage
adjoining. This church possesses an organ, and the
three rose windows are filled with stained glass. A
HONGKONG 1 95
small Wesleyan chapel stands at the junction of Queen's
Eoad and Kennedy Eoad. The Eoman Catholic
Cathedral is situated in Glenealy ravine, near the
Botanic Gardens, and is a large structure in the Gothic
style ; the bell tower is at present incomplete, and the
central tower is furnished with an insignificant wooden
apology for a spire. It was opened for worship in 1888.
St. Joseph's Church, in Garden Eoad, is a neat edifice
erected in 1876 on the site of one destroyed by the
great typhoon of 1874 ; St. Anthony's Church on the
Bonham Eoad, near West Point, is an ugly structure,
erected in 1892 by the munificence of a late Portuguese
resident; St. Prancis' Church, at Wanchai, and the
Church of the Sacred Heart, at West Point, are small
and unattractive structures. There are two Maho-
medan mosques, one in Shelley Street and the other at
Kowloon, the latter being for the accommodation of the
men of the Hongkong Eegiment. There are also
several Protestant mission chapels. St. Joseph's Col-
lege, a school for boys managed by the Christian
Brothers (Eoman Catholic), occupies a large and hand-
some building on a prominent site below Eobinson
Eoad. The Italian Convent, in Caine Eoad, educates a
large number of girls, and brings up many orphans
gratuitously. The Asile de la Sainte Enfance, in
Queen's Eoad East, is in the hands of French Sisters,
who receive and train up numbers of Chinese found-
lings. The Eoman Catholics also possess a Eeformatory
at West Point for Chinese boys, which is e£&ciently
managed. Other denominations likewise support
charitable establishments, conspicuous among which
are the Diocesan Home and Orphanage, the Berlin
Foundling Hospital on Bonham Eoad, which has a neat
little chapel attached (in which services according to
the Lutheran creed are held), the Baxter Vernacular
School, the Victoria Female Home and Orphanage, etc.
St. Paul's College, situated between Pedder's Hill and
Glenealy Ea-rine, was erected in 1850, and was origi-
nally founded for the purpose of giving a theological
196 HONGKONG
training to young Chinese and others intended for the
ministry of the Anglican Church, but is now an ordi-
nary school. A small chapel is attached. The college
is the residence of the Bishop of Victoria, who is its
warden.
The Protestant, Eoman Catholic, Parsee, Jewish, and
Mahomedan Cemeteries occupy sites in Wong-nai
Chung Valley, and are kept in good order. The
Protestant Cemetery is almost a rival to the Public
Gardens, being charmingly situated and admirably laid
out with fountain, flower-beds, and ornamental shrubs.
The principal Chinese cemetery is on the slopes of
Mount Davis, near the Pokfolum Bead, and is dismally
bare and injudiciously crowded.
Institutions.
There are several clubs in the Colony. The principal
are the Hongkong Club on the New Praya, the Club
Germania in Wyndham Street, and the Lusitano Club
in Shelley Street. There are also the Victoria Eecrea-
tion Club, which possesses bath and boat-houses and
gymnasium, on the Praya near the Cricket-ground ; a
cricket club, a football club, a polo club, a golf club, a
hockey club, a rifle association, and a yacht club. The
Ladies' Eecreation Club have several prettily-laid-out
tennis-courts and a pavilion in their grounds on the
Peak Eoad.
The Hongkong General Chamber of Commerce have
a room in the City Hall, and meet annually. The
Committee form its executive, and the Chamber is
frequently asked by the Government for its opinion
on questions affecting commerce. The Freemasons'
Hall, erected in 1865, is situated in Zetland Street,
and belongs to the parent lodge, the Zetland. The
Sailors' Home occupies a site at West Point, and
there is a Mission to Seamen. The British Mercantile
Marine Officers' Association and the Institution of
HONGKONG 197
Marine Engineers have been formed, and watch over
the interests of those professions. The Hongkong
Benevolent Society does good work among the indi-
gent waifs occasionally cast destitute on the Colony.
Among other institutions is the St. Andrew's Society,
primarily established to ensure the fitting celebration
of the anniversary of Scotland's patron saint.
The annual races are held at the latter end of
February, under the auspices of the Hongkong Jockey
Club, on the Eace-course in Wong-nai Chung Valley,
at the east end of the town, a beautiful spot enclosed
by fir-clad hills. On this occasion the whole colony
makes holiday, and the stands and course are crowded
with one of the most motley collections of humanity
to be seen in any part of the world. Gymkhanas are
also held monthly during the summer. A regatta is
held in December in the harbour, but it does not
evoke the same enthusiasm as the races. Athletic
Sports are also got up every year by the residents and
the garrison, and occasionally swimming-matches and
boat-races take place. There is an Amateur Dramatic
Club, the members of which give several performances
in the City Hall Theatre during the season. There are
two large Chinese theatres, where the Chinese drama
is pretty constantly on view. The Tung Hing Theatre,
which was only completed and opened in 1892, is a fine
building constructed on modern principles, and with
special regard to the safety of the auditors.
There are three daily papers published in English :
the Hongkong Daily Press, which appears in the morn-
ing; the China Mail and the Hongkong Telegraph,
issued in the evening. There are two weekly papers,
the Hongkong Weekly Press and China Overland Trade
Report and the Overland China Mail. The Chronicle
and Directory fw China, Japan, Straits Settlements, etc.,
appears annually, published at the Daily Press ofiice.
The China Review, which is devoted to reviews and
papers on Chinese topics, is published once every two
months. The native Press is represented by four daily
1 98 HONGKONG
papers — the Chung Ngoi San Po, which is the oldest
and most influential, published at the Daily Press
office ; the Wa Tsz Yat Po, or Chinese Mail ; the Tstm
Wan Yat Po, and the Wai San Yat Po. There is a
Portuguese weekly paper called Porvir. The Govern-
ment Gazette is published once a week.
There are several good hotels in Victoria. The
principal one in the city is the Hongkong Hotel,
close to the Clock Tower, and extending from the
Praya to Queen's Eoad, a handsome building, six
stories high, and containing 150 rooms. The Peak
Hotel is situated at Victoria Gap, about 1400 feet
above the sea, and provides extensive accommodation
on a most luxurious scale.
Industries.
Manufactures are yearly increasing in importance.
There are three large sugar refineries : the China Sugar
Eefining Company's establishments at East Point and
at Bowrington, and the Taikoo Sugar Eefinery at
Quarry Bay. In connection with the first-named
Company there is also a large Distillery, where a con-
siderable quantity of rum is manufactured. There is
an Ice Factory at Bowrington, a large Eope Factory
in Belcher's Bay, Steam Saw Mills at Bowrington, a
Glass Manufactory and a Match Manufactory at
Kowloon, a Feather Cleaning and Packing Establish-
ment at Kennedytown, a Soap Factory at Shaukiwan,
and two or three Engineering Works. The Green
Island Cement Company has works at Deep Water
Bay, on the south side of the island, and at Kowloon
Bay, beyond Hongkong. A Paper Mill on a consider-
able scale, fitted with the best English machinery, was
erected at Aberdeen in 1891. The works of the Hong-
kong and China Gas Company are situated at West
Point, and those of the Hongkong Electric Company
at Wanchai. The city is illuminated partly by gas
HONGKONG 199
and partly by the electric light, the latter having been
introduced at the end of 1890. Among the industries
pursued by the Chinese are glass-blowing, opium-boil-
ing, soap-making, vermilion and soy manufacture,
tanning, dyeing; beancurd, toothpowder, and cigar-
making, boat-building, etc., etc. The Hongkong Cotton
Spinning, Weaving, and Dyeing Company, Limited,
has a mill of 50,000 spindles at So Kunpo, which com-
menced running with 12,000 spindles in June, 1899.
There is excellent dock accommodation. The
Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company, Limited,
have three extensive establishments, one at Kowloon,
one at Tai Kok Tsui, and the third at Aberdeen on the
south side of the island. The establishments of this
company are fitted with all the best and latest appli-
ances for engineering and carpenter's work, and the
largest vessel in H.M.'s Navy has been received into
the No. 1 Dock at Kowloon. The docks and slips
are of the following dimensions : — Kowloon — No. 1
(Admiralty) Dock — 576 feet in length, 86 feet in
breadth at entrance at top and 70 feet at bottom, and
30 feet depth of water over siU at ordinary spring
tides. No. 2 Dock — Length on keel blocks, 371 feet ;
breadth at entrance, 74 feet ; depth of water over sUl
at ordinary spring tides, 18 feet 6 inches. No. 3 Dock
— Length on keel blocks, 264 feet ; breadth at entrance,
49 feet 3 inches ; depth of water over sill at ordinary
spring tides, 14 feet. Patent Slips : No. 1 — Length on
keel blocks, 240 feet; breadth at entrance, 60 feet;
depth on the blocks, 14 feet. No. 2 — Length on keel
blocks, 230 feet ; breadth at entrance, 60 feet ; depth of
water on the blocks at ordinary spring tides, 12 feet.
Tai Kok Tsui: Cosmopolitan dock — Length on keel
blocks, 466 feet; breadth at entrance, 85 feet 6 inches;
depth of water over sill at ordinary spring tides,
20 feet. Aberdeen : Hope Dock — Length on keel
blocks, 430 feet ; breadth at entrance, 84 feet ; depth
of water over sill at ordinary spring tides, 23 feet.
Lament Dock — Length on keel blocks, 333 feet;
200 HONGKONG
breadth at entrance, 64 feet ; depth of water over sill
at ordinary spring tides, 16 feet. The Kowloon and
Cosmopolitan Docks are in close proximity to the
shipping in port, and are well sheltered on all sides.
The approaches to the Docks are perfectly safe, and
the immediate vicinity affords capital anchorage. The
Docks are substantially built throughout with granite.
Powerful lifting shears with steam purchase at Kow-
loon and Cosmopolitan Docks stand on a solid granite
sea-wall, alongside which vessels can lie and take in or
out boilers, guns, and other heavy weights. The shears
at Kowloon are capable of lifting 70 tons, and the depth
of water alongside is 24 feet at low tides. There are
other establishments at which shipbuilding and foundry
work is carried on, and some good-sized steamers have
been launched in the Colony. Her Majesty's Naval
Yard likewise contains machine-sheds and fitting-shops
on a large scale, and repairs can be effected to the
machinery of the British men-of-war with great expedi-
tion. A large extension of the Naval Yard has been
decided upon.
The Peak District.
A well-made but rather badly graded mountain road
leads up to the summit of Victoria Peak, with numerous
other paths branching off from it at Victoria Gap along
the adjoining hills. A tramway, on the Midre-rope
system, has been laid to the Victoria Gap, where the
stationary engine is fixed, the lower terminus being
close to St. John's Cathedral, aud was opened to traffic
on the 30th May, 1888. Passengers can alight at the
Kennedy, Bowen, and Plantation Roads, where plat-
forms are provided for their accommodation. Within
the past few years the number of bungalows and houses
on and about the Peak has increased so much that they
now form quite a considerable alpine village. The
Military erected a sanatorium on the heights near
Magazine Gap in 1883, and in 1897 acquired the
HONGKONG 201
handsome and commodious Mount Austin Hotel for
the same purpose. The Peak Church was opened for
worship in June, 1883. Comfortable accommodation
for visitors is afforded at the Peak Hotel. The road
from Victoria Gap westward leads to Victoria Peak,
which is 1823 feet above the sea, and rises almost
abruptly behind the centre of the city of Victoria. On
the summit is placed the flagstaff, from which the
approach of the mails and other vessels is signalled.
An excellent and well-graded road, commencing on
the Bowen road, leads to Magazine Gap, near which
a second hill village of foreign residences has been
formed, on the southern side of the hills, at an eleva-
tion of about 900 feet above the sea.
The Eueal Districts.
There are several villages on the island, the largest
of which is Shau-ki Wan, situate in a bay in the Ly-
ee-mun Pass, a great resort of Chinese fishing-craft.
Aberdeen, known to the Chinese as Shek-pai-wan, on
the south of the island, possesses a well-sheltered little
harbour, also much frequented by fishing-craft. Two
large docks of the Hongkong and Whampoa Dock
Company are situated there, and add to the importance
of the place. Pokfolum, on the road to Aberdeen,
about four miles from Victoria, was formerly a place of
resort for European residents in the hot weather, and
some elegant bungalows were erected in pleasant and
picturesque situations, commanding fine sea views and
cool breezes, but since the development of the Peak
district Pokfolum has been comparatively neglected.
The sanitarium of the French Missions is located at
Pokfolum, and is a fine building with an elegant chapel
attached. The Dairy Farm is also situated there.
Wong-nai Chung is snugly located at the head of the
valley of that name, and is the most accessible of all
the villages from Victoria. Stanley, situated in a
202 HONGKONG
small bay on the south-east of the island, was once
the site of a military station, but the barrack build-
ings have been pulled down, and the village is now
stationary. A cemetery on the point contains numerous
graves of British officers and soldiers. One of the
places most in favour with pedestrians who are not
afraid of a good long tramp is the little village of
Tytam Tuk, nestling among trees at the mouth of the
stream of the same name, which here enters Tytam
Bay, the most extensive inlet on the southern coast.
There are good carriage-roads from Victoria both to
Aberdeen and Shau-ki Wan and bridle-roads to Stanley
and Tytam, and as a memorial of the Queen's Diamond
Jubilee a new road round the island is to be made.
Saiwan is a small village picturesquely situated in
Saiwan Bay, just outside the Ly-ee-mun Pass, and is
also much frequented by picnic parties. In the belief
that it was a healthy locality, small barracks were
erected there early in the forties, but the experiment
proved most disastrous, for in five weeks out of a
detachment of twenty English soldiers five died and
three more were removed in a dangerous condition.
The buildings were therefore soon abandoned. Shek O
is a small but prettily located village occupying a small
valley shut in from the water on the eastern coast, not
far from Cape D'Aguilar.
KOWLOON AND OTHER DErENPEXCIES.
Across the harbour is the dependency of British
Kowloon. The peninsula was first granted in per-
petual lease by tlic Kwaugtung Government to Sir
Harry (then Mr.) Smith I'arkes, but was definitely
ceded to Great Britain in 1860 by Article VI. of the
Peking Convention. It has an area of four square
miles, and has latterly made considerable progress.
Yau-ma Ti, the principal village, has increased in
population, and bids fair to some day become an
HONGKONG 203
important town. There is a considerable Chinese junk
trade at this place, and amongst other industries is a
preserved ginger factory. The Military and Police
Eifle Eanges are at the back of and near the village.
Gas Works were erected here in 1892, and the settled
portion of the peninsula is now lighted with gas.
"Waterworks were established in 1895. A regiment of
Indian infantry is stationed at Tsim-tsa Tsui, where
barracks and of&cers' quarters are located and a Ma-
hommedan mosque has been erected. At Tsim-tsa
Tsui, too, a number of European houses have been
erected and numerous gardens laid out, and this
portion of the peninsula, which faces Victoria, is
gradually developing into a European residential
settlement. A fine bund, with a massive granite
wall, has been constructed there, and an extensive
range of godowns buUt and several fine wharves made,
for discharging cargo and coaling. There is also a
briquette factory. The Navy maintains a small naval
yard, subsidiary to the principal establishment on the
Hongkong side. A well-equipped Observatory is
situated on Mount Elgin ; and a large and handsome
Police Station for the Water Police occupies an emi-
nence just above the new praya. In front of this
Station is a Time Ball, which is dropped daily. A
steam ferry plies regularly between Tsim-tsa Tsui and
Victoria; ferry boats also run between Victoria and
Yau-ma Ti and Hung-ham, where the principal docks
of the Hongkong and Whampoa Dock Company are
situate. The Cosmopolitan Dock and works, also
belonging to the same company, are situated at Fuk
Tsun Heung, formerly known as Sam Shui Po.
In 1898 an agreement was entered into whereby
China cedes to Great Britain for ninety-nine years the
territory behind Kowloon Peninsula up to a line drawn
from Mirs Bay to Deep Bay and the adjacent islands,
including Lantao, th#extent of the New Territory being
about 376 square miles, namely, 286 square miles on
the mainland and 90 square miles on the islands.
204 HONGKONG
The ceremony of formally taking over the territory was
fixed for the 17th April, 1899, when the British flag
was to be hoisted at Taipohu, and the day was declared
a general holiday. Attacks, however, having been
made on the parties engaged on the preliminary arrange-
ments, the mat-sheds erected for the accommodation of
the police having been burnt, and other evidences of an
organised opposition having been given, it was deemed
advisable to assume full jurisdiction on the 16th
April, on which date the flag was hoisted by the Hon.
J. H. Stewart Lockhart, C.M.G., Colonial Secretary.
Military operations were found necessary to overcome
the opposition, and on the 18th April the rebels were
completely routed in an action fought at Sheung Tsun,
their force numbering some 2600 men. On the British
side there were no fatalities and only one or two slight
casualties ; on the Chinese side a number were killed
and wounded, but the exact figures were not ascertained,
as men hit were carried away by their friends. In the
Convention it was provided that Kowloon City was to
remain Chinese, but it having been established beyond
a doubt that the hands of the Chinese officials were by
no means clean in respect of the disturbances which
occurred on the taking over of the leased area, the
Home Government determined to mark their sense of
the duplicity of the Chinese in a suitable manner, and
orders were accordingly issued to the military autho-
rities to seize Kowloon walled city and Shamchun.
This was done on the 16th May, 1899, no opposition
being encountered at either place. The Hongkong
Volunteer Corps took part in the expedition to Kowloon
City. Shamchun, the other place seized, is an im-
portant town on the river of the same name just beyond
the boundary originally agreed upon. Unfortunately
it has not been retained, having been restored to the
Chinese authorities in November, 1899. The New
Territory under British jurisdiction is being developed
by the construction of roads ; police stations have been
established, and a system of administration by means
HONGKONG 205
of village communities organised. The headquarters
of the administration are at Taipohu. The principal
islands and their estimated population are as follows :
— Tsing I, 400; Ma Wan, 400; Lantao, 6860; Ping
Chau, 600 ; Cheung Chau, 5000 ; Lamma, 460.
Of the islands and islets in the waters of the colony
(exclusive of the recent acquisitions) the most im-
portant is Stonecutter's Island, formerly known as
Wong Chune-chow, opposite to and about three-quarters
of a mile from the north-western extremity of the
Kowloon peninsula. The island is an irregular ridge
about a mile in length, and a little over a quarter of a
mile broad. The Gunpowder Depot is on the eastern
end, near the wharf ; the principal eminences are occu-
pied by batteries more or less formidable, and no one is
allowed to land without a i permit. The Quarantine
Station is also located here. After the great typhoon
of September, 1874, two or three thousand bodies of
the victims found afloat were interred on Stonecutter's
Island. Kellet's Island is a small rock near East
Point, on which a fort formerly stood, but which has
been replaced by a small magazine. Green Island, at
the western entrance of the harbour, has been planted
with trees, and now justifies its name all the year
round. A lighthouse has been placed on its south-
western extremity. One Tree Island is a tiny rock
near the entrance to Aberdeen. A Dynamite Depot
has been erected on it. Aplichau, a considerable island
opposite Aberdeen, of which harbour it forms part,
has a populous fishing village on its northern shore
facing Aberdeen. Lantao and Lamma Islands were
brought under British jurisdiction by the Kowloon
Convention of 1898. Both islands are sparsely popu-
lated by agriculturists and fishermen.
206 HONGKONG
Population, Garrison, and Defences.
The total population of the Colony, according to the
census taken in January, 1897, numbered 246,880,
compared with 221,441 in May, 1891, and 160,402 in
1881. The resident civil population was composed as
follows : — Europeans and Americans other than Portu-
guese 3269, Portuguese 2263, Indians 1348, Eurasians
272, other races 882, Chinese 200,005. The mercantile
marine numbered 1971, of whom 356 were Europeans
and 1523 Chinese. The Chinese floating population
numbered 31,752. The army, including an Indian
regiment, numbered 2850, and the navy 2268. Of the
resident population and mercantile marine, 2374 were
natives of the British Isles, 223 Americans, 118 French,
366 German, 163 Jewish, and 105 Spanish, the balance
being spread over various other nationalities. The
population of Victoria is about 165,000. The popula-
tion of the New Territory is estimated in round figures
at 100,000.
The garrison, according to the estimates for 1899-
1900, consists of three companies of Garrison Artillery,
657 of all ranks; Engineers, eleven officers and 179
men; Infantry, six-eighths of a battalion, 779 of all
ranks ; Army Service Corps ; seven Colonial Corps,
eleven companies of Infantry, four of Local Artillery,
one of Local Engineers, 1921 of all ranks; Depart-
mental Corps, nine officers and 33 men of the Royal
Army Medical Corps, five of the Army Ordnance
Department, 18 of the Army Ordnance Corps, and six
of the Army Pay Corps. Total of aU ranks, 3625.
There is also a Volunteer Corps consisting of a battery
of Light Field Artillery, three Machine-gun Companies,
an Engineer Company, an Infantry Company, and a
Band.
The approaches to the harbour are strongly fortified,
the batteries consisting of well-constructed earthworks.
The western entrance is protected by three batteries on
HONGKONG 207
Stonecutters' Island and two forts on Belcher and Fly-
Points, from which a tremendous converging fire could
be maintained, completely commanding the Sulphur
Channel. Another small battery, on the hill above and
west of Eichmond Terrace, has a wide range of fire.
The Ly-ee-mun Pass is defended by two forts, and if
vessels survived that fire they would then have to face
the batteries at North Point and Hungham which
completely command the eastern entrance. Another
battery on the bluff at Tsim-tsa Tsui, Kowloon, com-
mands the whole of the centre of the harbour. The
batteries are armed with the latest breech-loading
ordnance.
In addition to the fortifications the Colony possesses
a small squadron for harbour defence. This consists of
the turret ironclad Wivern, 2750 tons, carrying four guns,
the gunboats &k (at present detached for service on
the Yangtsze) and Tweed, each carrying three guns, and
four torpedo-boats. The crews of these vessels are borne
in the receiving ship Tamar, which is also the head-
quarters of the Commodore and his staff. The Naval
Yard is an extensive range of workshops and offices
east of the Artillery Barracks, and the Naval
Authorities have another large establishment on the
Kowloon side near to Yau-ma-Ti.
Climate.
As intimated in earlier paragraphs, Hongkong formerly
enjoyed a most unenviable notoriety for unhealthiness,
and in years past the troops garrisoned here suffered
grievously from malarial fevers. A great deal of the
sickness in the early days of the Colony was caused by
excavating and otherwise disturbing the disintegrated
granite of which the soU of the island mainly consists,
and which appears to throw off malarious exhalations
when upturned. At the present time, however, the
Colony is one of the healthiest spots in the world in
2o8 HONGKONG
the same latitude. The influence of the young pine
forests created by the Afforestation Department has no
doubt been beneficial in checking malaria, and the
attention latterly bestowed on sanitation has not been
without its due effect. The annual death-rate per 1000
for the whole population in 1898 was 22-3, as compared
with 18'85 during the previous year and an average of
23 during the preceding five years (exclusive of 1894) ;
these deaths, however, include no less than 1175 from
plague, and if these are omitted the death-rate appears
at 17'7. The death-rate among the white races was
162, among the Chinese 22-5, and among the coloured
races 3 3 '6.
The following table shows the fifteen years' means
of the annual and monthly values of the principal
meteorological elements, taken from the Observatory
Eeport for 1898 :—
HONGKONG 209
P" CM CQ <N 00 N '-H
000s OOOOjvi "^
CO CO (N W
CO CQ <N *^
»Mb-m(Nt>mcooocOi-t-^ocoo(N;^fet>»5»«
o'-'l'i^t-.QOt^OiCO ... .*■. f>a'H I— t
Oa>oos oo(N'-iom <?^
CN CO tN iH R
■#Tt<CDTt<COCOO«OI>t>COiO'HOTj(t*fe;C<»5i'-t
&<» <^. «i g ^ S 55 S '^ «i » =«. >>: q & 2 g
I^OSOSCO COiOlN'H^ r; (N
CN C^ C^ W
O'HCOOOCOOSCOt-ffONiOOOh-eCM'^^'M
(N (N tN tH CO
.OOC<l'MCOC^OOi-lCN«50oeOOcOOSCd<NOO«0
•^I>COt:-!7^*g^^^'» <MT^Oi"^CO "'ri'^fe
(N C^ C^ •-• rH "-'
.-^O'#t>(NTt*5D(N00C0C0O00O05«DW'09B"*
<N (N (N «-H W *"
.eO»Ot>-CD(?4iCmi-(t-OTOSiO"«i<OtOTHt/liCC3.H
^ «; q •^. S 00 ?3 S ^ ^ -; ^. » ^. ^, ;H CO 25
Oa CO CN tH (N *^
• OOQO(:DCS»Ot^COCOt*'500«OOooQOteOi^l>>
S.C^ 1 '^ g ^ S 28 S "^ OS <N (N ^. O f*^ 2
-ijciOOs ir5»rs<N(NTHW »h
^ (N CO C^
•^ CO CO (N
(MOiHt>t>-U5OC0CQSSi-(i0O'«0i'^feoC0l>
■s -1 «= ^. S 3 ;S 5 ^ "^ q -: t^ '^ *^. :i; 2 I;-
CO CO (N W
Ol^^co^-'HO'^^o^H■^»ooooOQOlCfeT^col>
S m iM ^ h
3 2 o> •o^'j^ is
a s a I ■ 2 § .3 -s .a -9 -I -I .f I
iiilaaig.S^g|a|ao-|g|o
^a -^ I S § « -a i § 1 1 § I g 3 1 1 1 1
■lO
HONGKONG
Trade.
Hongkong is a free port, and there is no complete
official return of the imports and exports compiled, but
the value of its trade is estimated at about £50,000,000
per annum. During the year 1898 the following
tonnage entered and cleared : —
KATIONALITT.
BHTESED.
Ve8»eU. Tong.
CLEA2ED.
.VcsaeU. Tons.
American ...
113
86,798
118
92,736
Austrian
25
66,159
26
66,236
Belgian
1
2,174
1
2,174
British
. 3,734
4,362,837
3,722
4,3*2,811
Chinese
213
262,835
211
260,832
Cliineae junks
. 29,466
1,814,281
29,740
1,812,473
Danish
69
43,427
6S
43,024
Dutch
6
8,839
6
8,839
French
158
176,341
156
175,455
German
746
898,012
740
891,563
Hawaiian
7
13,855
7
13,855
Italian
14
19,789
14
19,789
Japanese
240
502,618
241
502,837
Norwegian ...
207
190,611
203
187,282
Russian
2
3,898
2
3,899
Siamese
1
309
1
309
Spanish
3
1,200
3
1,391
A total of 19,069 vessels of 7,292,911 tons entered, and
18,216 vessels of 7,268,337 tons cleared with cargoes.
There also entered in ballast 15,936 vessels of
1,161,072 tons, and cleared 16,773 vessels of 1,157,167
tons.
The trade chiefly consists in opium, cotton, sugar,
salt, flour, oil, cotton and woollen goods, cotton yarn,
matches, metals, earthenware, amber, ivory, sandal-
wood, betel, vegetables, granite, etc., etc. There is
an extensive Chinese passenger trade, now chiefly
restricted, however, to the Straits Settlements, Nether-
lands India, Borneo, the Philippines, Siam, and Indo-
China.
Hongkong possesses unrivalled steam communica-
tion. The P. & 0. S.N. Co. and the M.M. Co. convey
the European mail weekly, the Norddeutscher Lloyd
HONGKONG 2 1 1
Co. maintain a regular fortnightly mail service between
Bremen and Hongkong, the P.M.S.S. Co., 0. & 0.
S.S. Co., and the Toyo Kisen Kaisha maintain a mail
service with San Francisco, the Canadian Pacific Eail-
way Co. a regular mail service with Vancouver, B.C.,
a regular line has been established by the Northern
Pacific S.S. Co. to Tacoma, and Oregon, Portland ; the
Eastern and Australian S.S. Co. and the China Naviga-
tion Co. keep up a frequent but rather irregular service
with the Australian Colonies, and the Nippon Yusen
Kaisha maintains services to Europe, India, Australia,
and the United States (Seattle). In addition to all
these, several great lines of merchant steamers run
between ports in Great Britain and Hongkong, of which
the China Mutual S.S. Co., Ocean S.S. Co. and the
Glen, Warrack, Mogul, Ben, Union, and Shell lines are
the most conspicuous. The Austrian Lloyd's steamers
also ply from Trieste to Hongkong, those of the
Hamburg-Amerika line from Hamburg, and the Navi-
gazione Generale Italiana Company's steamers run
monthly from Genoa. There is frequent but irregular
steam communication between Java and Hongkong.
Between the ports on the east coast of China, Formosa,
and Hongkong the steamers of the Douglas S.S. Co.
ply regularly twice a week, and those of the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha weekly, and there is constant steam
communication with Hoihow, Manila, Saigon, Haiphong,
Tourane, Bangkok, Borneo, etc. With Shanghai, Tien-
tsin, and the ports of Japan there is frequent communi-
cation by steamers of the Indo-China, China Navigation,
and other lines, in addition to the English and French
and German mail steamers, which leave weekly.
Between Hongkong, Macao, and Canton there is a
daily steam service, and tri-weekly steamers as far as
Wuchow on the West Eiver,
MACAO
MACAO
Macao is situated in 22 deg. 11 min. 30 sec. N. latitude,
and 113 deg. 32 min. 30 sec. E. longitude, on a rocky
peninsula, renowned, long before the Portuguese settled
on it, for its safe harbour for junks and small vessels.
The Portuguese, who had already settled on the island
of Lampacao, and frequented for trading purposes
Chin-chew, Lianpo, Tamao, and San-choaa (St. John's
Island, where Francis Xavier, the celebrated missionary,
died), first took up their residence at Macao in 1557.
Shortly after their arrival pirates and adventurers from
the neighbouring islands commenced to molest them.
The Chinese authorities were powerless to cope with
these marauders, who went so far as to blockade the
port of Canton. The Portuguese manned and armed
a few vessels and succeeded in raising the blockade of
Canton and clearing the seas. The town of Macao soon
afterwards began to rise, and during the eighteenth
century trade flourished there, the difficulty of residence
at Canton greatly contributing towards it. The East
India Company and the Dutch Company had establish-
ments in Macao.
Historians are divided in opinion as to whether the
possession of Macao by the Portuguese was originally
due to Imperial bounty or to right of conquest. There
can be no doubt, however, that it was held at a rental
of 500 taels a year until Governor Eerreira do Amaral
2l6 MACAO
in 1848 refused to pay the rental any longer, and
forcibly drove out the Chinese Custom-house, and
with it every vestige of Chinese authority. This bold
stroke cost him his life in August, 1849, for he was
waylaid and barbarously murdered near the Barrier
of Porta Cerco and his head was taken to Canton.
The sovereignty of Portugal over the peninsula was,
however, formally recognised by China in the Treaty
signed with Portugal in 1887.
The colony is separated from the large island of
Heang-shan by a wall built across the narrow con-
necting sandy isthmus. Two principal ranges of hills,
one running from south to north, the other from east to
west, may be considered as forming an angle, the base
of which leans upon the river or anchoring place. The
public and private buildings, a cathedral, and several
churches, are raised on the declivities, skirts, and
heights of hillocks. On the lofty mount eastward,
called Charil, is a fort, enclosing the hermitage of
Na. Sra. de Guia, and westward is LiUau, on the top
of which stands the hermitage of Na. Sra. da Penha ;
entering a wide, semi-circular bay, which faces the east,
on the right hand stands the fort San Francisco ; and
on the left, that of N. Sra. de Bom Parto. Seen from
the roads, or from any of the forts crowning the several
low hills, Macao is extremely picturesque. The public
and private buildings are gaily painted and the streets
kept very clean.
In the town there are several places of interest apart
from the fan-tan or gambling saloons. The Gardens
and Grotto of Camoens, once the resort of the celebrated
Portuguese poet Camoens, are worth seeing, as also the
noble fapade of the ancient Jesuit church of San Paulo,
burnt in 1835. The Cathedral is a large plain structure
having no architectural pretensions, and the various
parish churches are stucco edifices, ugly without and
tawdry within. Pleasant excursions can be made to
the Hot Springs of Y6-mak, about sixteen miles from
Macao, accessible by steam launch. In winter snipe
MACAO 217
are to be found in the neighbourhood and afford good
sport.
After the cession of Hongkong to the British the
trade of Macao declined rapidly, and the coolie traffic
subsequently developed there gave it a certain notoriety.
This traffic, pregnant with abuses, was abolished in
1874, Tea continues to be an article of export,
showing the value of about $500,000 a year. Essential
oils are also exported to some extent. There is like-
wise some trade in opium. Silk filature, brick and
cement works, and other factories have also been
established. The commercial activity of the place,
however, so far as the Portuguese are concerned, is a
thing of the past. There is still a fair native trade
carried on, the value of which, according to the
Chinese Customs returns from Lappa, in 1898 reached
Tls. 12,030,939 as compared with Tls. 13,143,774 in
1897. As the harbour is fast silting up, however, most
of the native trade will soon desert the place unless
efficient dredging operations are inaugurated. Some
work has recently been done in this direction, but the
operations are on a smaU scale. Owing to its being
open to the south-west breezes, and the quietude
always prevailing, Macao has become the frequent
retreat of invalids and business men from Hongkong
and other neighbouring ports. There are two well-
conducted hotels: the Boa Vista and Hing Kee's
Hotel.
The Hongkong, Canton, and Macao Steamboat Com-
pany runs a daily steamer (Sundays excepted) between
Macao and Hongkong, leaving the former port at
8 o'clock a.m. and Hongkong at 2 p.m. Another
Company also runs a regular steamer daily between
Hongkong and Macao. Between Macao and Canton
there is a daily steam service, Sundays excepted. The
distance from Macao to Hongkong is 40J miles, and to
Canton 88 miles. Macao is connected with Hongkong
by telegraph. The population of Macao, with its
dependencies of Taipa and Colowan, according to
2l8 MACAO
returns made in 1896, was — Chinese, 74,568; Portu-
guese, 3898 ; other nationalities, 161 ; or a total of
78,627. Of the Portuguese 3106 were natives of
Macao, 615 natives of Portugal, and 177 natives
of other Portuguese possessions. Of the foreigners
80 were natives of Great Britain.
INDO-CHINA
INDO-CHINA
The French possession of Indo-China lies between
8 deg. 30 min. and 23 deg. 23 min. N. lat., and 97 deg.
40 min. and 107 deg. E. long. (Paris), and comprises
the colony of Cochin-China and the protectorates of
Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and the Laos, the whole
being under the direction of a Governor-General, who
is assisted by the " Conseil Supdrieur de L'Indo-Chine."
The latter is a movable body, meeting in any of the
chief towns according to the summons of the Governor-
General, but Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin, appears to
be taking rank as the principal seat of the administra-
tion. According to a decree of the 8th August, 1898,
the Council consists of the Governor-General, President,
the General Commanding the Troops, the Commander-
in-Chief of the China Squadron, the Lieutenant-
Governor of Cochin-China, the Eesidents Superior of
Tonkin, Annam, and Cambodia, a representative of the
Laos Administration, five other officials, the President
of the Colonial Council of Cochin-China, the Chairmen
of the Saigon, Hanoi, and Haiphong Chambers of
Commerce, of the Cochin-China and Tonkin Chambers
of Agriculture, the Chairmen of the Annam and Cam-
bodian Mixed Chambers of Commerce and Agriculture,
and two native members appointed by the Governor-
General. The full Council meets once a year, and
provision is made for a permanent Commission to
transact such business as may arise between the sessions.
The deltas of Cochin-China and Tonkin are fertile ;
222 INDO-CHINA
Annam, connecting them, is a long mountainous tract,
with a narrow littoral on one side and a wild, sparsely
populated hill-tract stretching to the Mekong on the
other. Eice, cotton, sugar, seeds, tobacco, spice, and
fish, are the principal productions of the alluvial
districts. The principal mineral production is coal,
which is mined at Tourane, on the coast of Annam,
and at Hongay and Kebao on the Tonkin coast. Other
minerals, including gold, silver, tin, copper, lead, etc.,
are said to exist in the Protectorate. The principal
harbours are Haiphong in Tonkin. Tourane and Thuanan
(for Hu6) iu Annam, and Saigon. The climate in
general is hot and humid. The year is divided into
two seasons, the wet and the dry.
The general budget for 1899 amounted to $17,620,000
and the local budgets were as follows : — Tonkin,
|3,993,639; Annam, $1,845,835; Cochin-China,
$4,550,000; Cambodia, $1,997,600; and Laos, $692,531;
making a total of $30,699,604
A loan of 200,000,000 francs has been approved by
the French Chambers for the construction of railways
in Indo-China, and provision is also made for a Govern-
ment guarantee on a projected line running into
Yunnan, which is to be constructed by a private
Company. The lines approved in Indo-China are
(1) Haiphong-Hanoi-Laokay ; (2) Hanhoi-Namdinh-
Vinh ; (3) Tourane-Hu6-Quangtri ; (4) Saigon-Thanhoa-
Langbiang; (5) Mytho-Cantho.
The population consists of at least 17,500,000, most
of whom are Annamites, the Cambodians and Laotians
coming next in about equal numbers. The Chinese
number 150,000, and Europeans amount to a little over
6000. The Tonkinese are larger and more robust than
the Cochin-Chinese, and more intelligent and active.
The Chinese have immigrated in large numbers to the
south of Cochin-China, where they have obtained
almost the exclusive possession of industries and
commerce. The Cambodians are naturally apathetic,
and have given way to the Chinese and Annamites.
INDO-CHINA 223
The Laotians and Mois, oppressed by their neighbours
and by their mandarin system, are lazy, timid, and
suspicious. The Muongs, who occupy all the basins of
the Eiver Noire and Song-ma, are more handsome and
robust than the Annamites. The Nuns resemble the
Chinese and the Thos belong to the Kmer race.
The total force of the French army in Indo-China in
1897 was 24,100. The force is composed as follows :
3 regiments infantry marine, 4800; 5 battalions of
the foreign legion, 3600 ; 4 regiments of native
tirailleurs, 14,100; 6 batteries of European artillery,
800 ; and artillery auxiliaries (European), 500. There
have to be added to the above the auxiliary services
and the gendarmerie, which bring the total up to
24,500, under the orders of a General of Division and
two brigadiers. There is also in Indo-China a native
militia of 10,000 men.
The trade of the colony is rapidly increasing, the
value having risen from 139,078,174 francs in 1888 to
205,231,545 francs in 1897. The exports, which
reached a value of 67,665,437 francs in 1888 amounted
to 117,048,554 francs in 1897. The principal article
of export is rice, of which 13,720,824 piculs were
shipped in 1897. The total imports amounted in value
to 39,388,286 francs in 1888, and to 51,922,684 francs
in 1897, the large increase being mainly in goods
imported from France, the value of which rose from
9,687,119 francs in 1888 to 20,825,931 francs in 1897,
while imports from foreign countries only rose from
29,701,167 francs to 31,096,753 francs. In the im-
portant item of piece goods, which seem to be the
staple most severely hit by the differential tariff, the
trade is being rapidly monopolised by France. Thus
in 1888 goods of this class from France figured for
1,944,138 francs only, while in 1897 the value had
risen to 10,662,422 francs, foreign goods, on the other
hand, falling from 13,452,917 francs to 7,248,983 francs.
2 24 INDO- CHINA
TONKIN
Anciently an independent kingdom, but since 1802 a
province of Annam, Tonkin is situated between lat. 19
deg. and 23 deg. N. and long. 102 deg. and 108 deg.
30 min. E., bounded on the north by China, on the
west by the Laos country, on the south by Annam, and
on the east by the Gulf of Tonkin. The country near
the sea is a rich alluvial plain, well watered by numerous
rivers, and produces large crops of rice, while sugar,
cotton, spices, indigo, sUk, and various other articles
are also raised. It possesses valuable mines of silver,
lead, antimony, and zinc, and gold and copper are also
known to exist. Concessions were granted in 1887 for
the working of the coal mines at Kebao and Hongay,
and coal of good quality from the last-named is now
largely exported. By the Treaty of Hue, dated the 6th
June, 1884, the Annamite Government placed Tonkin
under a French Protectorate, and its affairs are adminis-
tered under the supervision of French Eesidents. It
is, in fact, now practically a French Colony. Tonkin
is divided into seventeen provinces, namely, Quang-yen,
Hai-duong, Bac-ninh, Thai-nguyen, Lang-son, Cao-bang,
Tuyenquan, Hong-hoa, Son-tay, Ha-noi, Ninh-binh,
Hong-yen, Nam-dinh, Thanh-hoa, Nghe-an, Ha-tinh,
and Bo-chinh. Hanoi, the capital, is the chief town of
the province of the same name, and appears on old
maps as Ke-sho. The population is estimated at from
10,000,000 to 12,000,000. A railway was some years
ago constructed from Phu Lang-Thuong to Langson, a
distance of 64 miles, but it was little better than a
tramway. The gauge of this line is now being widened
from 60 centimetres to 1 metre and extended to Hanoi,
a distance of 45 kilometres, and a concession has been
granted for a further extension from Langson to Lung-
chow, in the Chinese province of Kwangsi.
The imports of Tonkin in 1897 amounted to
HANOI 225
31,540,958 francs, of which 14,732,857 francs were of
French origin, and the export to 19,803,948 francs.
The quantity of rice exported in 1897 was 2,263,116
picula.
HANOI
Hanoi, the capital of Tonkin, and now the seat of
Government for Indo-China, is situated on the Songkoi,
or Eed Kiver, 110 miles from its mouth. The city is
built close to the river, here nearly a mile in width, and,
owing to the lakes and trees interspersed, presents a
rather picturesque appearance. The citadel occupies
the highest site, and is surrounded by a brick wall
twelve feet high and a moat. It contains the barracks
for the troops, arsenals, magazines, etc., and the Eoyal
Pagoda stands within its enclosure. The ancient city is
situated between the citadel and the river, and its
streets present a novel appearance, owing to the singular
architecture of the houses. Since the occupation by
the French in 1882 great improvements have been
effected in the laying out of the town and the formation
of roads and streets. The district nearest the river
is gradually assuming the appearance of a Franco-
Oriental city. Long, wide new streets, planted with
trees, and lighted by electricity, have been constructed,
of which the Rue Paul Bert is the principal business
thoroughfare, containing the chief European shops,
hotels, etc. The Mairie, Post Ofi&ce, Treasury, Club,
and Band-stand are close to the Eue de Lac. The
Cathedral, a large but ugly edifice, with twin towers, is
situated in a street at the back of the Eue Jules Ferry,
but being very lofty is a conspicuous object from most
parts of the city. A fine bronze statue of Paul Bert
was erected in the Place facing the Petit Lac, and
unveiled on the 14th July, 1890. The Petit Lac is a
sheet of water in the middle of the new city, rendered
picturesque by the quaint pagodas occupying the small
2 26 INDO-CHINA
islands which adorn it. There are fairly good hotels.
In the native city the streets are well kept and very
clean as compared with those of most Eastern cities.
They are all lighted and drained. Some of the houses
are very quaint and characteristic. Of the temples,
that of the Grand Buddha on the shore of the Grand
Lac, is perhaps the most important, as it contains a
colossal bronze figure of the saint. A new Bace Course,
opened for use in 1890, has been formed just outside
the new town. The residences of the Governor-General
and Commander of the Troops, the Government OflBces,
the Hospital, and some other public buildings are
situated on what was formerly " the Concession," near
to the Hver bank. The population in 1897 was 102,700,
of whom 950 were Europeans, 100,000 Annamites,
1697 Chinese, and 42 Indians. There are several
French papers published in the town. Steamers run
on the Songkoi as far as Laokai, near the Yunnan
frontier, and a considerable transit trade is developing.
A railway is now being made from Hanoi to Phulang-
thuong, whence a line runs to Langson and the Chinese
frontier. A concession has been granted for the
extension of the Line to Lungchow, in Kwangsi.
HAIPHONG
This is the shipping port for Hanoi, Hai-duong, and
Namdinh, the commercial centres of Tonkin. It is
situated in lat. 20 deg. 51 min. N., and long. 106 deg.
42 min. E. on the river Cua Cam, which is connected
by two or more channels or creeks with that great river
connecting Yunnan with the Tonkin Gulf, called the
Song-koi. The town of Haiphong is about sixteen and
a half mUes from the lighthouse. The lighthouse at
the entrance of the river, on the island of Hon-Do, is
visible at a distance of about six miles. The entrance
to the port is obstructed by two bars ; the outer one
sand, the inner one mud. Haiphong is accessible,
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HAIPHONG 227
however, by vessels drawing from 17 to 18 feet. There
is plenty of water in the river. Vessels anchor about a
quarter of a mile from the shore in from 40 to 60 feet
of water abreast of a creek communicating with the
Song-koi. The banks of the river are low and consist
of alluvial mud, from which the present town has with
great labour and expense been reclaimed.
Haiphong proper is situated on both sides of the
creek above referred to, and is in the midst of an
extensive rice-swamp with low-lying, swampy land all
around it for miles, having in the distance the monotony
relieved by rugged ranges of low limestone hills ; and
beyond these to the northward, at a distance of some
sixteen miles, is a range of mountains, the loftiest,
known as the Grand Summit, being about 5000 feet
high. Most of the native buildings are wretchedly
constructed of mud, bamboo, and matting, but a well
built European town with broad boulevards, lighted by
electricity, has sprung up, and is fast assuming the
aspect of a prosperous city. The Hotel du Commerce
is a large and handsome structure, its lofty mansard
roof dominating every building in the town. There is
a church attached to the Eoman Catholic Mission. A
small dock and some fine wharves and godowns have
been made. A Public Garden of rather limited area,
with a band-stand in the centre, has been neatly laid
out at the end of the Boulevard Paul Bert. The Cercle
du Commerce, which is a well-managed Club, has its
domicile in the Boulevard Paul Bert, where is also
situated the Cercle Banian, another prosperous Club.
The Eace Course is about a mile from the town on the
Do Son road. There are several newspapers published
in the town. The population of Haiphong in 1897 was
18,480, of whom 900 were Europeans, 5500 Chinese,
12,000 Annamites, 35 Japanese, and 45 Indians. A
regular service of river steamers is maintained between
Hanoi and Haiphong by the Messageries Fluviales.
Haiphong is connected by submarine cable with Saigon
and Hongkong. The town has electric light.
228 INDO-CHJNA
ANNAM
The kingdom of Annam, wHch also includes the
ancient kingdom of Tonkin, conquered and annexed by
King Gialong of Annam in 1802, is bounded on the
east by the Gulf of Tonkin and the China Sea, on the
west by Siam, Cambodia, and the Shan States, on
the north by the Chinese provinces of Yunnan and
Kwangsi, and on the south by Cochiu-China. It is
under French protection. Annam proper is a narrow
strip of country between the sea and the moimtains,
the territory beyond which is occupied by aboriginal
tribes who are practically independent. Annam is to
Tonkin, in native parlance, as the girdle to the tunic,
the latter being a broad and rich territory. Annam
proper is a comparatively poor country, and is dependent
for part of its rice-supply upon Tonkin. The population
of Annam is uncertain, but, including that of Tonkin,
it may be roughly estimated at 20,000,000. The King,
Thanh-Thai, attained his majority in 1897. The
imports of Annam in 1897 amounted to 4,719,349
francs, and the exports to 2,552,919 francs.
Hu^, the capital of the kingdom of Annam, is
situated on a small, scarcely navigable river named
Truong Tien, and called by the French the Hu6 River,
which debouches on the coast in about lat. 16 deg.
29 min. N., and long. 107 deg. 38 min. E. Hu6 is a
walled city and has been built on lines similar to those
of a fortified European town of the seventeenth century.
It consists of two distinct parts — the city proper and
the suburbs. The former stands in the middle of a
square island, separated from the latter on three sides
by a river and on the fourth by a canal. It is defended
by a fortified enceinte, six kilometres in circumference,
PROVINCES DE L' ANN AM 229
constructed by French engineers after the system of
Vauban, and having six large gates. Within this
enceinte reside all the Government officials. The walls
are built of brick and are very lofty. Inside the outer
enceinte is the citadel, similarly but less solidly fortified,
and having eight instead of six gates. The six offices
of the Ministry are in this quarter, as well as the
Library, the Mandarins' College, the Courts of Justice,
the Observatory, and various arsenals and barracks.
The palace of the Council of State, and numerous other
edifices, all of an official character, stand within the
second enceinte. Behind these buildings is a wall of
brick, which traverses the citadel throughout, separating
it completely into two parts. This wall, which encloses
the royal palaces and harem, has three gates ; that in
the centre being in the form of a pagoda, gilt and
adorned with elaborate carvings. The mass of the
houses and even the public buildings in Hue are,
however, very mean and in a bad state of repair. The
Eoyal palace, like that of Peking, has yellow tiles;
those of the nobles are red. The population of the
city and suburbs is estimated at 100,000, of whom
about 800 are Chinese. The only Europeans are the
French Resident, his staff, and guard, consisting of 300
French soldiers. The mouth of the Hue Kiver is
defended by forts, which were taken by the French in
August, 1883, when the Hue Government at once
capitulated.
PROVINCES DE L'ANNAM
TOURANE
The port of Tourane is situated about forty miles to
the south-east of Hu6, the capital of Annam, but on
account of the Thuan-an Bar it is accessible by sea for
large craft during only six months of the year, from the
end of March to the end of September. The land route
230 INDO-CHINA
from Hue, about sixty-eight miles in length, passes
over the Nuages range of hills and is an easy road for
horse and foot traffic. The extensive bay of Tourane
is surrounded by hills and affords anchorage to the
largest vessels. The Government transports, and the
steamers of the Compagnie Nationale de Navigation,
and the Messageries Maritimes find an anchorage here
at all states of the tide and in all weathers. The
Tourane Eiver, which has its source in the mountains
of the interior, empties itself into the Bay. It is
navigable only for small boats and junks, by which the
traffic with the provinces of Quang-nam and Quang-
ngai is carried on. The town, which is well built,
extends for a length of nearly two miles along the left
bank of the river. It possesses many public buildings,
including the French Eesidency, a fine MUitary Hospital,
spacious and well-ventilated Barracks, the Customs
House, the Treasury, the Post Office, and the Munici-
pal Offices, also a number of well-appointed business
establishments, amongst which may be mentioned the
Bank de I'lndo-Chine, the Opium Farm, the Messageries
Maritimes offices, the Gassier Hotel, the Courbet Hotel,
etc. The Markets, built of brick and stone, are large
and contain several hundred stalls. On the right bank
of the river also there are a few buildings, which are
included in the French concession. A silk filature has
been established there. A quarter of an hour's walk
from this district is the village of My-kh^, which has
given its name to a magnificent beach much frequented
by the European population. The trade of Tourane is
considerable, and several steamers a month arrive from
Hongkong, taking full return cargoes of sugar, rattan,
bamboo, areca nuts, silk, cassia, etc. The Messageries
Maritimes and the Compagnie Nationale de Navigation
have agencies at Tourane, and the vessels of these Com-
panies, together with those arriving from Hongkong, give
a total of about a dozen entering the port every month.
Besides these vessels a large number of large sea-going
junks from China, Hainan, and the ports of Annam,
QUINHON— COCHIN-CHINA 23 1
Tonkin, and Cochin-China carry on an active and con-
siderable trade in the products of the country. Tea,
coffee, and the mulberry tree are cultivated on a large
scale in the neighbourhood, and there are several
plantations owned by Europeans. Less than an
hour's journey by boat from the town are the Marble
Mountains, an object of interest for travellers, who
should not pass through Tourane without paying them
a visit. The population of Tourane in 1897 was 4650,
of whom 100 were Europeans, 50 Chinese, and 4500
Annamites.
QUINHON
Quinhon was opened to foreign trade upon the con-
clusion of the treaty between France and Annam,
signed in March, 1874. It is situated on the coast of
Annam in about lat. 13 deg. 54 min. N., and long. 109
deg. 20 min. E. The entrance to the port is obstructed
by a bar, which may be crossed, however, by any vessel
with a draught not exceeding 16 to 16^ feet. The chief
articles of export are salt, silk, crapes, beans, arachide
oil and cakes, sugar, etc. The population of the
province is one million; that of the port 3000, of
whom about 20 are French civilians. The country is
well cultivated, and the commercial prospects of the
port are improving every year. A considerable trade
is carried on, chiefly with Hongkong, Haiphong,
Saigon, Singapore, and Bangkok. The trade is at
present chiefly in the hands of the Chinese.
COCHIN-CHINA
Cochin-China is a French Colony. The province of
Giadinh, of which Saigon is the chief port, was con-
quered by the Franco-Spanish fleet on the 17th
of February, 1859, but Lower Cochin-China (comprising
the provinces of Giadinh, Bienhoa, and Mytho, and the
Islands of Pulo Condor) was not definitely occupied
232 INDO-CHINA
until 1862, when it was formally surrendered by
treaty ; in 1867 three more provinces were conquered
by the French and added to their possessions, viz.
Chaudoc, Hatien, and Vinhlong. The actual boundaries
of Cochin-China now are : on the North the kingdoms
of Annam and Cambodia, on tlie East and South the
China Sea, on the West the Gulf of Siam and
Cambodia.
The Colony of Cochin-China is divided into seven
large provinces, comprising in all twenty-one inspec-
tions. Besides Saigon, which is the capital of Cochin-
China and at the same time of the province of Giadinh,
the other chief towns bear the names of their respective
provinces, Bienhoa, Mytho, Chaudoc, and Hatien. The
country is a vast plain with small hills on the West
and some mountains on the East and North ; the three
highest are Batlen 884 metres, Baria 493 metres, and
the Mai mountains 550 and 600 metres in height.
The principal rivers are the two Vaico, the Saigon
Eiver, and the Donnai Eiver. The lower parts of
Cochin-China are wrinkled with small creeks or
arroyos, giving easy and rapid communication to all
parts of the country. Of late several canals have been
opened. The magnificent river Mekong, which descends
from the Thibetan mountains, after running through
different territories, crosses Cambodia, enters the lower
provinces of Cochin-China, by two branches, and
empties itself into the China Sea by five large outlets
called respectively Cua Tieu, Cua Balai, Cua Cochien,
Cua Dinh-an, and Cua Batac.
The principal product of Cochin-China is rice. It is
planted in almost every province except some of the
northern districts. After this important grain the chief
products are sugar-cane, mulberry-trees, pepper, betel-
nut, cotton, tobacco, and miiize. China-grass, sesamum,
palma-christi, indigo, saffron, gum-lac, sapan wood, and
cinchona also exist in pretty large quantities, with
several other minor productions.
The principal salt-pits are in the province of Baria.
COCHIN-CHINA 233
The forests contain large quantities of fine timber, and
abound with game of nearly every description, amongst
which may be named elephants, rhinoceros, tiger, deer,
wild boar, and elands, while amongst the feathered
game the peacock, partridge, snipe, woodcock, jungle
fowl or wildcock, pheasant, etc., may be mentioned.
The rivers and creeks swarm with fish of every de-
scription, and alligators abound in some.
In the chief towns of each province there is a citadel
sufficiently garrisoned, and numerous military posts in
the interior maintain and watch over the security of
the inhabitants. The Annamites are a race devoted
principally to agriculture ; they are not so industrious
as the Chinese and are indifferent traders. The Chinese
have the largest proportion of the trade in their
hands.
The whole of the French possessions are now com-
prised under the title of Indo-China, and consist of
the colony of Cochin-China and the protectorates of
Tonkin, Annam, and Cambodia, and are under the
control of a Governor-General, who usually resides in
Tonkin. The Government of Cochin-China is ad-
ministered by a Lieutenant-G-overnor, who is assisted
by a Privy Council composed of all the Heads of
Departments as official members and several unofficials.
The Colonial Council of Cochin-China, some of the
members of which are elected by the residents, consists
of sixteen members, six of whom are natives. In the
various arrondissements, moreover, councils have been
introduced composed entirely of natives. The towns
of Saigon and Cholon are ruled by Municipal Councils,
the members of which bodies are partly French and
partly native. The Chamber of Commerce at Saigon is
also an official body elected by the merchants and
traders ; formerly it was composed of French, foreigners,
and Chinese, but in 1896 its constitution was altered,
and it is now an exclusively French body.
The population of Cochin-China in 1897 was
2,126,935, of whom 1,860,872 were Annamites, 173,231
234 INDO-CHINA
Cambodians, 74,210 Chinese, 4490 Europeans (exclusive
of the troops) and the rest Indians, Malays, and Mois.
The imports of Cochin-China and Cambodia combined
amounted in 1897 to 51,922,684 francs, of which
20,825,931 francs were of French origin, and the ex-
ports to 94,691,687 francs. The quantity of rice
exported in 1897 was 10,555,804 piculs, and in 1898
11,277,770 piculs. The number of vessels of all
nations that cleared from Saigon during the year 1898
was 351, of 443,655 tons ; adding the steamers of the
Messageries Maritimes, Messageries Fluviales, and the
Compagnie Nationale, the total is 541 vessels, and
714,875 tons. The British flag accounts for 156 vessels,
of 215,735 tons, or about half of the tonnage employed.
SAIGON
Saigon, the capital of Cochin-China, is situated on
the Saigon river, a branch of the Donnai, in lat. 10 deg.
50 min. N., and long. 104 deg. 22 min. E. It is about
40 miles from Cape St. James and is accessible to the
largest vessels. Since its occupation by the French
the climate has undergone a very favourable change,
owing to different sanitary works in the town, such as
drains, the filling up of pools, marshes, etc. The town
presents a fine appearance, the roads and thoroughfares
being broad and regular. Amongst the public buildings
Government House is the most remarkable; several
millions of francs have been spent upon its construction
and decoration. The other prominent public buildings
are the new Palace of the Lieutenant-Governor, the
new and handsome Post Ofiice on the Place de la
Cathedrale, the Custom House, the "Direction de
rint^rieur," the Treasury, the Land Office, Public
Works Department, the Schools, and the Supreme
Court. The Military Hospital is a fine and hand-
some building, as are also the Arsenal, Barracks, and
Artillery Pare. There is also a stately Gothic Cathedral
CHOLON 235
of large proportions. A fine bronze statue of Gambetta
stands in the Boulevard Norodom. Saigon has two
public gardens, the "Jardin de la Ville," which is
maintained at the expense of the Municipality, and the
Botanical Garden. There is good docking accommoda-
tion, the Bassin de Radaub being one of the finest
docks in the world, capable of receiving the largest
men-of-war, and there are two floating lifts. There are
two steam rice-mills. The population of Saigon in
1897 was 32,561 (exclusive of the Naval and Military-
forces, about 1200 to 1500 men). The French popula-
tion numbers 1753 and other Europeans 207.
The M.M. steamers call twice a month at Saigon on
their homeward and outward trips. Easy communica-
tion is afforded with the principal towns of the interior
by subsidised mail steamers, and there is a railway to
Mytho. All the principal towns of Cochin-China
possess telegraphic communication, and a submarine
cable unites the colony with Singapore, Hongkong,
Haiphong, etc. The postal organisation of the Colony
is very complete and efficient ; correspondence can be
sent daily to almost all parts of the country. The
Journal Officiel is published twice a week, and there are
usually one or two other journals published, but they
frequently change their titles, and lead a spasmodic
existence. The Gia-dinh-hao is the native issue of the
Journal Officiel.
CHOLON
This town, distant four miles from Saigon, with which
it is connected by two steam tramways, is the seat of
most of the Chinese trade of the Colony. Cholon may
be said to be the granary of Cochin-China, and is the
seat of much commercial activity. Most of the rice-
mills are located in this place, there being no less than
six worked by steam, and there are several large brick-
yards. The town, like Saigon, possesses a Municipal
236 INDO-CHINA
Council, composed partly of French, partly of Annam-
ites, and partly of Chinese. The population in 1897
was 67,712.
CAMBODIA
Cambodia, formerly called the kingdom of the Khmer,
extends from 101 deg. 30 min. to 104 deg. 30 min.
longitude E. of Paris, and from 10 deg. 30 min. to 14
deg. latitude. It was reduced to its present propor-
tions in 1860 by the annexation of its two richest
provinces, Angkor and Battambang, to Siam. Its area
is about 62,000 square miles. It is bounded on the
south-west by the Gulf of Siam, on the south-east by
French Cochin- China, on the north by the French Laos,
and on the north-west and west by Angkor and Battam-
bang. The noble river Mekong flows through the
kingdom, and after passing through French Cochin-
China, empties itself, by a number of mouths, into the
sea. The Mekong is the grand waterway of Cambodia,
and, like the Nile in Egypt, lays the greater part of the
country under water annually, greatly increasing its
fertility. The soil of Cambodia is rich and productive,
and rice, pepper, indigo, cotton, tobacco, sugar, maize,
and cardamoms are cultivated. Coffee and spices of
all sorts could be grown. Among woods, ebon)-, rose,
sapan, pine, iron, and other valuable sorts exist, no less
than eighty different kinds of timber being found in the
forests. Iron of good quality has been discovered, and
it is affirmed that there are gold, silver, and lead mines
in the mountains. The fisheries of Cambodia are very
productive, and salt fish forms one of the chief articles
of export.
Cambodia was once an extensive and powerful state,
and proofs tliat it possessed a much higher civilisation
than that which now prevails in the country are to be
found in the architectural remnants of former grandeur.
The noble ruins of the ancient city of Angkor are
CAMBODIA 237
monuments of a people much superior to the feeble
race which now inhabits Cambodia. The Cambodians
differ entirely from their neighbours the Annamites,
both in features and customs. Polygamy is practised
among them. The prevailing religion is Buddhism.
The people are apathetic and indolent, and have allowed
the trade to fall into the hands of Chinese, of whom
there are about 160,000 in the country. The entire
population of the kingdom in 1893 was 1,000,000.
Slavery, since its abolition by the French Treaty of
1884, has almost entirely disappeared.
The Government of Cambodia is a monarchy, under
Erench protection. The present king, Somdach Pra
Maha Norodom, succeeded his father King Ang Duong
in 1860. In June, 1884, Norodom signed a new treaty
with France, by which the administration of the country
was handed over to French residents. Since the con-
vention of 1892 the native functionaries are appointed
by the king, under the control of the French Administra-
tion, and are paid from the treasury of this kingdom.
Pnom-penh, the present capital of Cambodia, and
seat of the Government, is situated on the river Me-
kong, nearly in the heart of the kingdom. The king's
palace is a large building, and the portion devoted to
his use is built and furnished in European style. The
king's steam workshops, attached to the palace, are
superintended by French marine engineers. French
functionaries have charge of the treasury, the adminis-
tration of justice, customs, and public works aud taxes.
Pnom-penh has been considerably improved under the
present rule, especially since the year 1889. Many
roads have laeen made and numerous sanitary works
carried out in the town, such as drainage works, the
filling up of pools, marshes, etc. The new Treasury, in
the ancient Khmer style of architecture, is a most
remarkable building. The other prominent public
buildings are the Post Office, Court, Hospital, Personnel
and Eegistration Office, Commissariat of Police, new
barracks for Marine Infantry, Public Works Office,
238 INDO-CHINA
Commercial Museum, Harbour Office, and the Indo-
China Bank and Messageries Fluviales agencies. The
E^sident Sup6rieur has a handsome residence in the
city. The population of Pnom-penh is estimated at
39,000. Though the country generally is entirely un-
developed, trade at present is considerably extending.
Cambodia has no seaports of any importance, and the
import and export trade passes through the port of
Saigon. Customs dues have been imposed since July,
1887, with exemptions in favour of French goods
and shipping. The tariff is based on the general tariff
of France, modified in certain points. The port of
Kampot can only be frequented by small native coast-
ing vessels from Siam and by Chinese junks. Easy
communication is afforded with the principal towns of
the interior, Saigon, Angkor, and Battambang, and
Stung-treng and Khone, in the Laos, by subsidised mail
steamers of the Messageries Fluviales. Telegraphic
communication exists between the principal towns of
Cambodia, and a land wire passing through Cambodia
and Laos connects Cochin-China with Bangkok and
Tavoy (Burmah).
SIAM
SIAM
The kingdom of Siam, of which Bangkok is the capital,
extends from the latitude of about 23 deg. north to the
gulf called after itself. It is bounded on the west by
Burmah and the Bay of Bengal, and on the east by the
Mekong. Formerly the Lai Mountains were claimed
as the eastern boundary, but in 1893 the French
pressed the claims of Annam to the territory between
the mountains and the river, and the Siamese were
compelled to retire. The kingdom proper lies in the
valley of the Menam, the country of the true Siamese.
The boundaries of Siam on the Bay of Bengal reach
from Burmah in a southerly line to the boundary
between Perak and Quedah in the Malayan Peninsula
in the latitude of 5 deg. south. The island of Junck
Salong, containing enormous deposits of tin ore, is in-
cluded in the territories of Siam. The boundary line
runs nearly east from Perak across the Peninsula in
about the same latitude between the provinces of
Tringanu and Pahang to the China Sea, thence north
to the head of the Gulf of Siam. The kingdom also
comprises the greater part of the ancient domain of Lao
and the rich and valuable possession of Battambang,
once a part of the kingdom of Cambodia. The various
dependencies and outskirts are peopled by a variety of
races, some sui generis, others illustrating every form
and shade of the transition between the original race
E
242 SI AM
and the Anuamites on the east, and the Malays and
Burmese on the south and west. The former capital of
Siam was Ayuthia, situated on the Menam Eiver
(literally the " Mother of Waters "), about 90 miles
from its mouth. In 1767 a series of bloody and
desperate combats between the Siamese and the Bur-
mese culminated in the capture and destruction of that
city by the victorious Burmese general and the con-
sequent exodus of the conquered. They moved down
the river about 60 mUes, and there founded the present
populous and flourishing city of Bangkok. The chief
of the Siamese Army rallied the scattered troops, and,
building a walled city at Toutaboree, declared himself
King under the title P'ya Tak. In 1782 the reins of
empire were seized by one of his most distinguished
generals, named Yaut Fa, who founded the present
dynasty, of which His Majesty the present King [the
fortieth reigning monarch in Siam of whom we have any
record] is the fifth in regular descent. The revenue of
Siam is estimated at about $17,000,000. The finances
of the country have recently been undergoing reorgani-
sation, for which purpose a European financial adviser
was engaged in 1896. At that time the revenue ac-
counted for was only about $10,000,000, but the amount
has since steadUy increased. A proposal to adopt the
gold standard was mooted in 1899. A triennial tax is
imposed upon all foreigners unrepresented by a consul,
such as Chinese. Siam entered the Universal Postal
Union on the 1st July, 1885. The first railway line,
from Bangkok to Paknam, was opened by the Bang on
the 11th April, 1893. It is a purely passenger Line,
having been unable to get any goods traffic worth
mentioning, and the dividend averages about four to
five per cent. Another railway, a Government line, via
Ayuthia to Korat, is in course of construction, and the
first section, from Bangkok to Ayuthia, a distance of
about fifty miles, was opened by the King and Queen
on the 26th Mai'ch, 1897. Another section, to Genghoi,
was opened on November 1st, 1897, and a third, to
BANGKOK 243
Hinlap, ou April 1st, 1898, and it is expected that the
line will reach Korat itself early in 1900. When com-
pleted the main line and the connecting lines are
expected to cover a distance of over 650 miles. The
construction of a line branching off the Korat line
near Ayuthia, and intended to open up the country
in the direction of Chiengmai, was commenced in
June, 1898. A fleet of steam-launches runs from the
metropolis in all directions up-country, to the east
and west.
The army in time of peace is small, and is made up
of the following : 1st. The Eoyal Bodyguard, which
consists of one squadron of cavalry, two battalions of
infantry, and one company of artificers and sappers.
This body of troops is recruited from the sons of noble-
men descended from the blood royal. 2nd. The Palace
Guard, which is composed of two battalions of infantry.
3rd. The Eoyal Elephant Troops. 4th. Eoyal In-
fantry, consisting of three battalions of four companies
each. To this corps is attached a squadron of cavalry
and a brigade of artillery. 5th. The Eoyal Marines,
numbering about 3000, who serve on board the Eoyal
yachts and gunboats.
The native population of Siam, with Laos, Tavoyans,
Peguans, etc., excluding those under Consular protec-
tion, is variously estimated at from seven to nine
millions. The number of Chinese in the kingdom is
estimated at about 2,500,000.
BANGKOK
The city of Bangkok is situated on both sides of the
Menam, about twenty-five miles from where this mag-
nificent stream empties itself into the Gulf. On the
right bank of the river is the city proper, enclosed
partly by a wall. The Eoyal palaces and Govern-
ment Offices are within the wall, the foreign hon»s,
244 ^//fil/
the Consulates, and the principal rice mills being on
the principal or main street of the city. The left bank
is principally occupied by the Siamese, Chinese, and
Mahomedan residents. The bulk of the business is
transacted on the right. Here a road, called New
Eoad, formerly known as the Charum Krung, extends
from the Palace walls to Bangkolem, and the electric
tramway runs along it for a distance of about six
miles. Various other new streets and roads have been
made recently. A telegraph line connects the Light-
house at the Bar beyond the mouth of the river with
the business portion of the city. The principal trade
of Bangkok, and the foundation on which not only its
prosperity but its actual existence mainly rests, is
rice. This article is drawn in immense quantities,
not only from the innumerable fields which line the
fertile valley of the Menam, but from the adjacent
rivers which flow into the Gulf from the enormous
watershed of the mountain crescent which fringes the
northern extremity of the kingdom. The outturn of
this grain in favourable years is scarcely to be calcu-
lated. It not only furnishes support to the native
population of Siam and the Malay Peninsula, but
largely contributes to the supply of China, Manila,
the Straits, Java, and Sumatra ; a large amount is also
sent to Europe, and even to South America. There is
also some trade in teak-wood and ivory, with very
many other minor articles of native produce which are
exported to China and the Straits. The steamers of
the Scottish Oriental Steamship Co. keep up regular
communication with Hongkong (occasionally leaving
and returning via Swatow and the Straits Settlements),
besides special boats only running during the rice
season ; while other lines of steamers connect the
kingdom with the Straits Settlements.
The public buildings and institutions include the
lloyal Museum, which is situated in the Wang Nah,
Bangkok, and consists of two buildings ; that on the
left to the approach contains the natural history
BANGKOK 245
collections and ethnological exhibits from Japan,
China, Java, etc. ; that on the right (formerly a royal
building) contains the Siamese ethnological collection.
There are also the British Church, a Eoman Catholic
Cathedral, two Hospitals, a Nursing Home, occupying
the building formerly used by the German Club, a
Ladies' Library, and Assumption College, managed by
the French Eoman Catholic Mission. St. Louis'
Hospital, a large and spacious building, situated near
the German Legation, was opened in 1899. The
Sisters of Charity are in charge. There is one first-
class hotel, the Oriental, and several smaller ones, also
a club called the Bangkok United Club. The King's
palace and the temples are magnificent and on a
large scale; the architecture is of a kind peculiar to
the country; and there is much more of novelty
and interest to be witnessed by passing travellers in
Bangkok than can be found in Chinese cities. The
roads have been greatly improved. The tramway was
introduced in 1888, and has proved financially suc-
cessful. The city throughout its principal streets as
well as all hotels and principal shops are lighted
with electricity, incandescent lights being universally
in use. The population of Bangkok is estimated at
350,000. There are about 700 foreigners in Siam,
most of whom are resident in Bangkok. The number
of Asiatic British subjects in Siam is estimated at about
30,000.
The harbour and island of Koh-si-chang, which lie
some 20 miles from the bar, and about 50 miles from
Bangkok, are places of importance. The harbour,
formed by a strait of sea running between islands,
offers a fine anchorage for vessels loading rice and teak
during the south-west monsoon, or from April to the
end of October. The largest ships can take shelter
there. A lighthouse serves to enable vessels to make
the entrance.
The value of the imports during the year 1898
amounted to $27,361,913, including $7,167,460 specie.
246 SIAM
as compared with $24,858,071, including $8,743,763
specie, in 1897, and $21,044,328 in 1896 ; and that of
the exports to $36,430,651, including $2,131,300 specie,
as compared with $32,032,390, including $1,098,267
specie, in 1897, and $30,362,912 in 1896.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
STBAITS SETTLEMENTS
This Colony — now consisting of the island of Singapore,
the province of Malacca, the island of Penang, the
Bindings further south, Province Wellesley on the
mainland, and the Cocos or Keeling Islands, and
Christmas Island, the latter two placed under the
same Government in 1886 and 1889 respectively — was
transferred from the control of the Indian Government
to that of the Secretary of State for the Colonies by an
Order in Council dated the 1st April, 1867. The seat
of Government is the town of Singapore, on the island
of the same name. The Government consists of a
Governor, aided by an Executive and Legislative
Council, the latter body consisting of nine official
members and seven unofficial members, of whom two
are nominated by the Chambers of Commerce of
Singapore and Penang. There are Municipal bodies
in each Settlement, the members of which are partly
elected by the ratepayers and partly appointed by the
Governor.
Penang was the first British Settlement on the
Malayan Peninsula, having been ceded to the British
by the Eajah of Kedah in 1785, and it soon acquired
a monopoly of the trade of the Peninsula. Malacca,
which had been successively held by the Portuguese
and the Dutch, finally passed into the hands of Great
Britain by treaty with Holland in 1824, having been
previously held by Great Britain from 1795 to 1818.
With the establishment of Penang in 1785 most of the
250 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
trade which had formerly centred at Malacca was trans-
ferred to the former. In 1819 Singapore was taken
possession of by Sir Stamford Eaffles, by virtue of a
treaty with the Johore Princes, and it soon took the
lead of Penang as a commercial centre. In 1826
Singapore and Malacca were incorporated with Penang
under one Government, Penang remaining the seat of
Government until 1830, when the administration was
transferred to Singapore.
The revenue of the Colony for 1898 was $5,071,282,
and the expenditure $4,587,367, as against a revenue
of $4,320,207 and an expenditure of $5,551,834 in
1897. The total value of the imports in 1898 (ex-
clusive of treasure) was $223,003,708, in 1897
$198,349,233, and in 1896 $186,196,932, and the
value of the exports in 1898 was $194,140,680, in
1897 $172,661,634, and in 1896 $161,777,519. About
two-thirds of the trade belongs to Singapore. The
population according to the census of 1891 was
506,984, as compared with 423,384 in 1881, and in
1898 was estimated at 592,587.
SINGAPORE
The town of Singapore, situated on the southern
shore of an island of the same name, in lat. 1 deg.
16 min. N., and long. 103 deg. 43 min. E.,is the seat of
government of the Straits Settlements.
The island of Singapore is about 26 miles long by
14 wide, containing an area of 206, or, with the ad-
jacent islets, 223 square miles, and is separated by a
narrow strait, about three-quaiters of a mile wide, from
the territory of Johore, which occupies the southern
extremity of the Malay Peninsula. Originally taken
possession of in 1819 by Sir Stamford Eaffles, it was,
until 1823, subordinate to our then settlement in
Sumatra. In that year it became an appanage of the
Indian Government, in which condition it remaineil
SINGAPORE 251
until 1867, when it was placed under the Colonial
Office in conjunction with Penang and Malacca.
The plain upon which the town and suburbs stand
is chiefly composed of deep beds of white, bluish, or
reddish sand, averaging 90 to 95 per cent, of silica.
The rest is aluminous. Eecent shells and sea-mud
found in this sand show it to have been formed by a
retreating sea. The general composition of the island,
which consists of low hUls and ridges, with narrow and
swampy flats intervening, is sandstone, with the ex-
ception of Bukit Timah, which is of granite formation,
containing about 18 per cent, of quartz. Colonel Low
(J. I. A., vol. i. p. 84) specifies eight varieties. The soil
overlying the granite is rather meagre (the stone being
neither very porphyritic nor micaceous, and not very
liable to disintegration), but it of course contains a
vast quantity of vegetable mould. The sandstone is of
various colours, the darker variety rapidly decomposing
in situ in yellow clay, though applicable to building
when fresh from the quarry. All the sandstones are
heavUy impregnated with iron, and an ironstone, known
as laterite, is, to the casual observer, the prevailing
mineral of the island. This occurs sometimes in veins,
but more frequently in large beds on the sides of hills,
and is extensively quarried for road-making purposes.
It is supposed to contain manganese, and is found from
the size of coarse sand to that of masses 15 or 20 feet
in diameter. It is of dark clove-brown colour ex-
ternally ; internally it is cellular, and varies in density,
being often, when freshly dug, soft enough to be cut
with a knife, or hard enough to resist the pick. It is
not magnetic in the mass, but when pulverised is found
to contain grains of magnetic iron. It hardens consider-
ably on exposure to the air. A substance somewhat
resembling soapstone, with red, white, or greenish
streaks, is sometimes found amongst the clays, being
rather greasy to the touch, and occasionally of a fibrous
texture. The valleys or flats of Singapore have a peaty
substratum, varying in thickness from six inches to a
252 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
couple of feet. Below this generally lies a bed of cold
clay, and below this a stratum of arenaceous clay. In
many districts kaolin is found in large quantities and
of excellent quality.
The town proper extends for about four miles along
the south-eastern shore of the island, spreading inland
for a distance varying from half to three-quarters of a
mile, though the majority of the residences of the upper
class Europeans lie much further back, within a circle
with a radius of three and a half miles from the
Cathedral. This portion of the Settlement is almost
entirely level, the highest hill in the island, indeed,
about seven miles from the town, only rising to a
height of 500 feet. The country roads are well kept,
and, thanks to the luxuriance of tropical vegetation,
abound in shade. The town streets, on the other hand,
though wide and well metalled, are, as regards archi-
tectural matters, drains, and gutters, not much credit
to the Settlement. Dirt and obstructions of all sorts
distinguish the native portion of the town, while, as
compared with nearly every other Eastern city in
European hands, the buildings of the business quarters
are somewhat shabby and mediocre. Government
House, the Government Offices, Police Barracks, Magis-
trates' Courts, Post Office, Library and Museum, Town
Hall, the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank, and the
Chartered Bank, however, are fine buildings, while the
Settlement possesses a handsome Club, which com-
pares favourably with any in the East. A fine bronze
statue of Sir Stamford Baffles stands on the Esplanade,
facing the sea.
Singapore possesses a handsome though small
Protestant Cathedral, called St. Andrew's Cathedral,
built in 1861 ; it is in the Gothic style, with a tower
and spire 204 feet high. There is a neat Presby-
terian Church, St. Gregory's (Armenian) Church, in
Hill Street, and several mission chapels. The Eoman
Catholics have a roomy Cathedral dedicated to the
Good Shepherd, at the corner of Brass Bassa Eoad and
SINGAPORE 253
Victoria Street, the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul in
Queen Street, the Church of St. Joseph in Victoria
Street, and other smaller churches in the outskirts.
There is also a neat Jewish Synagogue in Waterloo
Street. The principal schools are those of the Eaffles
Institute, the Christian Brothers, and the Anglo-
Chinese School. The Eaffles Girls' School and the
Convent also provide for the education of girls of the
Protestant and Eoman Catholic persuasions.
The Singapore Club has a good building in a central
position. There are Eecreation, Sporting, Eowing,
Shooting, Cricketj Lawn Tennis, Art, and Eeading
Clubs, and the Celestial (Chinese) Eeasoning Associa-
tion. There is a Country Club with a well-built
bungalow situated some three miles out of town, at
which dances and amateur theatricals are frequently
given. The German community have a similar insti-
tution. The Eaffles Library and Museum, moved in
October, 1887, into the new building erected for them,
are creditable and well-kept institutions, the Museum
having made very fair progress since its inception.
The Library contains over 16,000 volumes, chiefly of
standard modern literature, and includes the valuable
philological collection of the late Mr. Logan.
There are several good hotels, of which the Eaffles
is the best. The Press is represented by the Straits
Times and Singapore Free Press (daily), with weekly
issues of both, and the Government Gazette. There are
also two Chinese daily papers called the Lat Pau
and Sing Pau, two Malay papers, the Jawi Peranakhan
and the Bintang Timor, and one or two papers in Tamil.
Singapore is well off for docks. The Tanjong Pagar
Company's premises lie about a mile to the westward
of the town, a fine wharf affording berthage for a large
number of vessels at one time, with sufficient water
alongside for vessels of the heaviest draught, and pro-
tected by a breakwater from the swell from the roads
and from the strength of the tides. There are com-
modious godowns erected on the wharf for the storage
254 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
of goods. Coal sheds, capable of storing 5U,0U0 tons,
adjoin the godowns, while handcarts on rails essentially
aid the labour of unloading vessels. The usual ac-
companiments are also to be found — two graving docks,
the Victoria Dock, 450 feet long and 65 feet broad at
entrance, and the Albert Dock, 485 feet long and 60 feet
broad at entrance — a machine shop, boiler, and mast-
ing shears, etc. The New Harbour Dock Company's
premises, situated about three miles further West, in-
clude two docks of 375 and 444 feet in length respec-
tively, with sheds, workshops, etc., as at Tanjong Pagar.
There is also a Patent Slip at Tanjong Khoo, which
is 429 feet long and 76 feet broad over piers. The
trade of Singapore in 1897 amounted (exclusive of
treasure) to $170,733,470 imports and $141,209,338
exports, against in 1897 $153,151,049 imports and
$127,914,626 exports, and in 1896 $137,220,000 im-
ports and $114,631,000 exports.
The population of Singapore Island, according to the
census taken in 1891, was 184,544, of whom 121,908
were Chinese and 35,992 Malays, an increase of 45,336
on the census of 1881. There were 5254 Europeans
and Americans, including 1160 military. The total
Eurasian population is given as 3589. The Indians
total 16,035, of whom 12,503 are Tamils, 3452 Bengalis,
26 Burmese, and 54 Parsees. Other nationalities total
1776, the Arabs leading with 806, the Japanese
number 287, the Siamese 211, the Jews 190, the
Sinhalese 159, and the Armenians 68. The population
of the town of Singapore is about 97,000.
The climate of Singapore is remarkable for its
salubrity, and the island has been described by medical
writers as the " paradise of children," infantile diseases
seldom being at all malignant. Despite its proximity
to the equator, under normal circumstances a daily
rainfall tempers the heat so thoroughly that many sleep
beneath blankets. Droughts, however, have been ex-
perienced of from one to six months. The climate of
the island is thus described by Mr. Thomson in the
SINGAPORE 255
" Journal of the Indian Archipelago," his remarks still
holding good : — " Singapore, though within 80 miles of
the equator, has an abundance of moisture, either
deposited by the dews or gentle, refreshing showers,
which keep its atmosphere cool, prevent the parching
effects of the sun, and promote continual verdure. It
never experiences furious gales. If more than ordinary
heat has accumulated moisture and electricity a squall
generally sets in, followed by a heavy shower of rain, such
squalls seldom exceeding one or two hours in duration.
According as the monsoon blows, you will have the
squalls coming from that direction. But the most severe
and numerous are from the west, called ' Sumatras,' and
these occur most frequently between 1 and 5 o'clock in
the morning. The north-east monsoon blows from
November to March ; after which the wind veers round
to the south-east and gradually sets in the south-west,
at which point it continues to September. The north-
east blows more steadily than the south-west monsoon.
The temperature is by one or two degrees cooler in the
first than in the last. The average fall of rain is found,
from the observation of a series of years, to be 92'697
inches ; and the average number of days in the year in
which rain falls is found to be 180, thus dividing the
year almost equally between wet and dry ; the rain not
being continuous, but pretty equally distributed through
the year, January, however, being the month irt which
the greatest quantity falls. The mean temperature of
Singapore is 81°'247, the lowest being 79°'55 and the
highest 82°'31, so that the range is not more than 2°-76.
It would appear from this that the temperature of the
island is by 9°'90 lower than that of many other
localities in the same latitude. Comparing the tempe-
rature now stated with that which was ascertained
twenty years earlier, and in the infancy of the Settle-
ment, it would appear that it had increased by 2°'48 — a
fact ascribed, no doubt, to the increase of buildings, and
to the country having been cleared of forest for three
miles inland from the town, the site of the observations.
256 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
The general character of the climate as to temperature
is that the heat is great and continuous, but never
excessive, and that there is little distinction of seasons,
summer and winter differing from each other only by
one or two degrees of the thermometer. Thunder-
showers are of frequent occurrence, but the thunder is
by no means so severe as I have experienced it in Java,
and seldom destructive to life or property.
" The botany of this place possesses several interest-
ing considerations. Being a connection-link between
the Indian and Australian forms, we have types of both,
and many genera of either region. We observe the
Indian forms in the natural families Palmae, Scitamineae,
Aroidese, Artocarpeae, EuphorbiaceaB, Apocyneae, Gutti-
ferse, Convolvulacese, Leguminosae, all numerous. The
natural famUies Casuarinse, Myrtaceae, particularly
Melaleuca and Proteaceae, connect us with Australia.
The plants, which usually spring up when the primeval
forest has been cut down, and where the bane of all
the rest of the vegetable kingdom — the Andropogon
caricosum, or Lalang grass — has not taken possession,
belong to the following genera: — Melastoma, Myrtus,
Morinda, Solanum, Eubus, Eottlera, Clerodendrum,
Commersonia, Ficus, and Passiflora. The forest con-
tains an immense number of species of timber trees,
most of them of great height and growth. About two
hundred have been collected, and of these about half a
dozen afford good timber for house and boat-building.
The teak is not of the number. The forest also produces
the two species which yield the useful gutta-percha, and
a fig which affords an elastic gum. But for use these
articles, as well as timber, are not obtained from
Singapore itself, but from the wider and more accessible
forests of the neighbouring continent."
The zoology of Singapore is that of the neighbouring
continent, to the exclusion of some of the larger animals
— as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the tapir, and the ox.
The largest feline animal indigenous to the island is a
small leopard, called by the Malays harimau-daan, that
SINGAPORE 257
is, " the branch " or climbing tiger. But the tiger, an
animal unknown to the island in the earlier years of the
British Settlement, made its first appearance five or six
years later. It seems to have crossed over from the
continent, attracted no doubt by the sound of human
voices and the lowing of animals. It multiplied greatly,
and was supposed to destroy yearly from two to three
hundred persons, proving the greatest bane of the
Settlement. Large rewards have always been offered
for the destruction of tigers ($50 per head), and a good
number were captured by pitfalls, but all attempts at
their extermination were for many years unsuccessful.
The spread of population, however, had its natural
result ; and although specimens are occasionally met
with which have swum the narrow strait between the
island and Johore, there are not probably more than
half a dozen now existing in the jungle. Of the natural
family of Mustelidae there are two in Singapore — the
musang of the Malays {Faradoxurus musanga) and the
binturung (Ictides ater), of the size of a badger. Otters
are occasionally seen along the coasts, but are rare.
The wild hog is numerous, and there are five species of
deer, the usual ones of the peninsula and Sumatra, from
the rusa, of the size of a heifer, to the pelandok, which
is hardly as large as a rabbit. Among mammals, one
species of bat is often to be seen, the same which is
so frequent in almost all parts of the Archipelago, the
kalong (Pteropus javanictos). This is about the size of
a raven, and a troop of them in flight has very much
the look of a flock of crows, and by a stranger may be
easily mistaken for one. Among reptiles, crocodiles
are common in the salt-water creeks and along the
shores of the island, but, having an abundant supply of
fish, are not troublesome to man. The Iguana lizard,
the bewak of the Malays, is not infrequent, and the
noisy house-lizard or tokay, the take of the Malays,
so common in Penang and so much more so in Siam,
is also found in Singapore. The esculent turtle is
very abundant along the shores of Singapore and the
25§ STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
neighbouring islands, and its use as food being restricted
to the European and Chinese population, it is the
cheapest animal food in the market, one of the largest,
weighing several hundredweight, selling for $2 or $3.
Of snakes, forty-four species have been found to exist,
of which fourteen are more or less venomous. The
well-known cobra (Naja tripvdians) possesses the pecu-
liar property of ejecting venom from its mouth. The
Malays say there is no cure for its bite. Those killed
have measured from 4A to 5^ feet in length. The
reptile, being slow and sluggish, is easily overtaken and
killed. When attacked, it erects the body and 'dilates
the skin on either side of the head, uttering a noise like
that of an irritated cat. If attacked, it throws, to the
distance of from 6 to 8 feet, a venomous fluid of a most
poisonous quality, even should it only enter the eye or
touch the mucous membrane or any open sore. The
hamadryad (Ophiophagtis daps) exists, but is fortunately
not common. The bimgarus is the only other venomous
snake of large size ; but pythons of considerable length
— up to 22 feet — are frequently captured. Fish and
crustaceans axe in great plenty, and some 200 species
will be found named in the published lists. About
half a dozen of these are excellent for the table, fully
equal to the best fish of our own coasts. Among the
best is the white pomfret of Europeans, the bawalputeh
of the Malays, of richer flavour than our soles, though
less luscious than the turbot, and the ikan merah,
resembling the sam-lai of China.
Singapore offers but few points of salient interest to
visitors, the Botanical Gardens at Tauglin, the Water-
works in Thomson Koad, and the Baffles Library and
Museum being its only show places. A railway across
the island has long been proposed, and was sanctioned
by a vote of the Legislative Council in 1899. This line
of fourteen miles may be the first section of a great
Malay Peninsula and India Kailway, passing through
and opening up the countries of Johore, Malacca, the
Native Malay States, some Siamese territory and
MALACCA 259
Burma, on to Calcutta. The distance from Singapore
to Calcutta is just over 2000 miles.
MALACCA
The settlement of Malacca excites more interest from
a historical point of view than either of its sister towns,
but has so completely fallen to the rear commercially
since the establishment of Penang and Singapore as to
merit but brief notice in this compilation. It is now
seldom visited by foreigners except for purposes of
relaxation. Originally settled by the Portuguese in
1511, it retained its importance as the one foreign
entrepot in the East until the founding of Penang, when
its fortunes as a port rapidly declined. The settlement,
however, has made considerable progress in agriculture
since the formation of new roads. At the present
moment it is the least European of all British Settle-
ments in the East, though the facts that it has given
its name to the peninsula and that it was the cradle of
Anglo-Chinese study attest its former importance. Its
area is embraced by boundaries some 42 mUes in length,
with a breadth of from 8 to 25 miles. It is governed
by a Eesident Councillor in subordination to Singapore.
The geological formation of the territory of Malacca
consists chiefly of granite rocks, overlaid in several
places by the red cellular clay iron-stone called by
geologists laterite. Many of the low plains are alluvial,
the soil composed of decayed vegetable mould inter-
laced with sand. The metalUc ores are iron, gold, and
tin. The surface generally is undulating, consisting of
low round ridges and narrow valleys, the only moun-
tain of considerable elevation being the Ledang of the
Malays, and the Ophir of the Portuguese, 4400 feet
above the level of the sea, or less than one-half the
height of the principal mountains of the volcanic
islands of Java — Bali and Lomboc — or those of the
partially volcanic neighbouring island of Sumatra.
26o STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
The mineral products of Malacca were at one time
looked upon as offering valuable prospects. Gold to
the extent of 1500 ounces yearly was obtained in
1857-8, but the yield decreased to such an extent that
it is no longer worked. Tin, about the same period,
assumed considerable importance. The first mines were
opened in 1793, but no great enterprise was displayed
until 1848, when some 5000 cwt. was the annual pro-
duct. This increased until 1858, and a large number of
Chinese were employed in the industry. The superior
yield of the Native States, however, combined with the
exhaustion of the surface washings, resulted in mining
enterprise in Malacca being virtually abandoned,
although both gold and tin probably still exist in
workable quantities.
The climate of Malacca as to temperature is such as
might be expected in a country not much more than
100 miles from the equator, lying along the sea shore —
hot and moist. The thermometer in the shade ranges
from 72° to 80° Fahrenheit, seldom being so low as the
first of these, and not often higher than the last. The
range of the barometer is only from 29'8 to 30"3 inches.
Notwithstanding constant heat, much moisture, and
many swamps, the town at least is remarkable for its
salubrity, and, with the exception of the early period of
its occupation by the Portuguese, has always enjoyed
this reputation.
Malacca ofifers numerous attractions to the orni-
thologist and entomologist, but it is less rich in
mammals than many other tropical districts. Nine
species of quadrumana, the tiger, black leopard, wild
cat, several species of viverra (such as the musang and
binturong), the elephant, one-horned rhinoceros, tapir,
six species of deer, and two of the wild ox comprise a
nearly complete list. Fair sport can be obtained by
those fond of shooting, from tiger to quail. It is note-
worthy that the existence of the tapir was unknown
until 1816, although European intercourse dates back
to some three centuries before. Tigers in the early
JOIInliK (s. <■ p. 205).
[I'arje 2C0.
PENANG 261
days of Portuguese occupation were so plentiful that the
want of inhabitants was seriously attributed to this
cause. As with the birds and insects, so with the
reptiles. The snakes, lizards, and crocodiles are, as a
rule, those of the peninsula generally, the birds alone
presenting a rather larger variety than those of other
districts. Nor does the vegetation present any ex-
clusive features, being that of the surrounding states.
The coast line is poor in shells, and the absence of
limestone accounts for the few species of land shells
found within the district.
Beyond its interest to the sportsman or naturalist,
Malacca possesses no attractions except to those who
like to visit scenes famous in the annals of discovery
for the bloody fights they have witnessed between the
natives and the European nations who contended for
their possession. Its population in 1891 amounted to
92,170 as compared with 93,579 in 1881, showing a
decrease of 1409. The population of the town is 16,503.
The trade in 1898, exclusive of treasure, amounted to
$1,916,252 for imports and $2,173,157 for exports as
compared with $2,064,007 and $2,415,702 respectively
in 1897.
PENANG
Penang, or Prince of Wales' Island, as it was formerly
called, is situated on the west coast of the Malay
Peninsula in 5 deg. north latitude. With the Bindings
and a strip of land on the opposite coast known as
Province Wellesley, from which it is separated by a
strait varying from 2 to 10 miles in width, it constitutes
the second in importance of the three governments
known as the " Straits Settlements." The island con-
tains an area of about 107 square miles, being 15 miles
long and 9 broad at its widest portions, while Province
Wellesley extends for a distance of 45 miles along the
coast, and has an average width of 8 miles, containing
262 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
270 square miles, and about 200 more for the Bindings.
The chief town of Penang is George Town, but the
name of the island (which signifies " Betel-nut island ")
has become so identified with the town that the specific
designation haa almost dropped out of use.
Penang was ceded to the famous Captain Light for
the East India Company in the year 1786 for an
annual payment of $10,000 to the Eajah of Kedah, a
step which was followed 13 years later by the cession
of Province WeUesley. In the year 1805 Penang was
elevated to the rank of a presidency, its rising fortunes
even then bidding fair to eclipse those of Malacca,
while Singapore was as yet unknown as a settlement.
In 1826 Singapore and Malacca were incorporated
with Penang, and the three were designated by the
title they still retain. But as the fortunes of Singa-
pore brightened, those of Penang declined, until the
former quite overshadowed her older sister, and in
1837 the principal seat of government was transferred
to Singapore.
The settlement of Penang is governed by a Eesident
Councillor, and has two unofficial representatives in
the Legislative Council, which sits at Singapore. An
important department of its trade lies in the business
transacted with the Dutch settlements in Sumatra.
Penang will always remain of a certain importance,
although it is not likely to again assume the position
in the commercial world it formerly held. It is a con-
venient coaling and man-of-war station, and is of yet
greater necessity as the virtual seat of government for
Province Wellesley, which must always be an im-
portant centre of British influence. The Tanjong Pagar
Dock Co. have rented the graving dock at Prye Eiver
in Province Wellesley, 250 feet in length and 50 feet
broad at entrance ; also a slip for vesseb 100 feet long.
George Town is built on a plain, at the back of which
rises the hill which, as Penangites declare, renders life
on the island more enjoyable than in any other part of
the Colony.
PENANG 263
The formation of Penang is granitic, being covered
in many places with a sharp sand or stiff clay, the
produce of the decomposition of the granite. Above
this again comes a coat of vegetable mould of greater
or less thickness. With the exception of a plain about
three miles in depth, upon which stands the town and
environs, the whole of the island consists of hills with
narrow valleys. No minerals of commercial value are
found in Penang.
The influence of the regular monsoon is more dis-
tinctly felt at Penang than in the most easterly part of
the Straits of Malacca, owing to the wideness of the
latter to the west and vicinity to the Bay of Bengal.
During the north-easterly monsoon, from November to
March inclusive, clear settled weather prevails, and in
the south-westerly, from April to October, the rains
take place. But neither rain nor drought is of long
continuance. The average heat of the year at the level
of the sea is 80°, and at the height of 2500 feet, the
highest inhabited point, 70°, the annual range being
about 20°; Where there is free ventilation the climate
is equal in salubrity to that of any other tropical one,
but in a few close valleys wanting this advantage the
malaria is deemed poisonous, and such localities, few in
number, are not inhabited by Europeans.
Of mammals the principal species are monkeys,
loris, wild pig, and two species of viverrida — the
musang and binturong. The ornithology calls for no
special remarks. The island is a happy hunting-ground
for the entomologist, numerous fine species of lepi-
doptera frequenting the hills. The botany of Penang
is perhaps better known than that of any part of the
peninsula, and, for the area involved, is particularly
rich. Palms, bamboos, banana and other fruit-trees,
and nutmegs clothe the hillsides, while ferns are also
plentiful. The high land permits the cultivation of
many flowers and other plants which will not thrive in
the flat, level lands of Singapore or Malacca.
As evinced by its name, the chief product of Penang
264 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
is the betel-nut, which, with all kinds of fruit and
nutmegs, is the only indigenous article of trade. Nut-
megs were at one time a most important branch of
industry, but the blight, which simultaneously affected
the whole peninsula, destroyed it. Their cultivation
has, however, now been resumed, and Penang nutmegs
stand high in the market. There is no agriculture
properly so called. Pepper was at one period of its
early history produced to the extent of three and a half
million pounds annually ; but the competition of other
places, notably of Netherlands India, proved fatal, and
it is now only cultivated in small patches, and is not
classed as an article of export trade.
The Perak-Penang Eailway is now in course of con-
struction. The terminus for Penang is at Prai, which
will be connected with the town by a ferry service.
The line will be 317 mOes in length and will connect
Penang with Port Dickson, and may subsequently be
extended to connect with Burmah on the North and
Siam on the East.
The town possesses few attractions, and the public
buildings are mediocre, with the exception of the
Government Offices, a fine new block erected in 1889
near the jetty. St. George's Church is an unpretending
edifice of 80 years' standing, centrally situated. There
is also a Eoman Catholic Church and several mission
chapels. The census of 1891 gave the total population
of Penang and Province Wellesley as 235,618 as com-
pared with 190,597 in 1881. The population of Penang
island was 123,886, that of George Town 85,000, and
of Province Wellesley 108,117. The value of the
imports (excluding treasure) in 1898 was 5^(59,175,573
as against $50,650,792 in 1897, and that of exports
$55,655,773 as against $48,703,837 in 1897.
JO MORE 265
JOHOEE
This state occupies the southern portion of the
Malayan Peninsula, and has an area of about 9000
square miles. The state is ruled by a Sultan, who is
independent, but under the protection of the British
Government so far as external policy is concerned.
The present Sultan, Ibrahim, was born in 1873, and
succeeded his father, the late Sultan Abubakar, in
1895, being crowned on the 2nd November of that
year. The country has made great progress in material
prosperity, and its orderly condition has attracted a
good deal of European capital, invested in planting
enterprises.
The capital is the town of Johore Bharu, or new
Johore, as distinguished from Johore Lama, or old
Johore, the former seat of the sultans of Johore, which
was situated a few miles up the wide estuary of the
Johore river. The new town is a flourishing little
place on the nearest point of the mainland to Singapore
island, and lying about 14 miles to the north-east of
Singapore city, in 1° 26' N. It contains some 20,000
inhabitants, mostly Chinese. Amongst the Govern-
ment buildings are the Istana, court and police stations,
barracks, gaol, hospital, market, railway station and a
mosque. A steam saw-mill, owned by Chinese, does
a good business. A plentiful supply of water, by
means of pipes from a stream in the hills about 12 J
miles distant, has been provided since March, 1890".
Good roads are being made, and, to meet the require-
ments of the Padang district, a light railway was com-
pleted during 1890 as far as Parit Jawa, a distance of
eight miles.
The population of the state is remarkable for con-
taining a larger number of Chinese than of Malays.
The exact figures have not been ascertained, but
probably come to 200,000, viz. Malays 35,000, Chinese
266 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
150,000, and Javanese 15,000. More than half are
found within 15 miles of the Singapore Straits. The
Chinese are chiefly found as cultivators of gambler and
pepper, and are spread over about this range of country
in the extreme southern end of the peninsula, nearest
to Singapore.
European pioneers have, in the last few years, made
some experiments in planting, on a large scale, sago,
tobacco, coffee, tea, and cocoa. These have been grown
in five different districts — Batu Pahat, Pulau Kokob,
Panti, Johore Bharu, and Pengerang ; but it is uncertain
how many of them can be considered established
industries.
At the present time the principal exports of Johore
are the carefully cultivated gambler, pepper, and sago,
and the natural products of timber, rattans, and damar.
For almost all such produce Singapore is the port of
shipment.
The only mineral in which the country is really rich
is iron. It is nowhere worked, but is found sdmost
everywhere. Deposits of tin are known in several
places, and gold in one or two spots. A little tin is
worked at Seluang, but no considerable mining is
actually carried on, unless the islands of the Carimons
be included. Though now politically separated from
Johore these islands are geologically part of it, and
were formerly a dependency of the kingdom.
Coaches and steam-launches run daily to Singapore,
whence letters and passengers find easy access to all
other ports. A telegraph line has been erected between
Johore Bharu and Singapore, and a railway has been
proposed, and will probably be constructed across the
latter island before a very long period has elapsed, the
scheme having received the sanction of the Straits
Legislative Council in 1899.
PAHANG 267
FEDERATED MALAY STATES
The Protected States comprise four Eesidences,
namely, Perak, Selangor, Negri Sembilan, and Pahang.
These have been federated, the federation taking effect
from the 1st July, 1896, and the administration is
presided over by a British Officer styled the Eesident-
General. Each State has its own Eesident and the
native rulers retain their titles and dignity. The head
offices are at Kwala Lumpur, Selangor.
PAHANG
The state of Pahang lies between Tringganu and
Johore, and extends along the eastern side of the
peninsula from 2 deg. 40 min. to 4 deg. 35 min. N"., its
coast line being about 130 miles in length. The area
of the state is estimated at 10,000 square miles, and its
principal river, which di'ains a large extent of country,
is known by the same name. The river Pahang is,
however, owing to its shallowness, navigable for small
craft only. The country is sparsely populated, there being,
according to the census of 1891, 57,462 inhabitants,
of whom about 50,527 are Malays.
The capital of the state is Pekan, a town situated a
few miles from the mouth of the river Pahang, where is
also the seat of Government. The state is under British
protection, and in August, 1888, the Sultan, acting
under the advice of the Sultan of Johore, applied for a
British Eesident to assist in the administration of the
country, which request was acceded to in October of
that year.
The predominant rock is slate, but granite, sandstone,
limestone, quartz, and schist abound, while traces of
volcanic action at some remote age are shown by
the presence of basalt, trachyte, etc. As regards its
268 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
mineralogy, the state has always possessed a high
reputation for its product of gold and tin. Though
during recent periods these have heen but little sought,
the wonderful old gold workings discovered by Messrs.
Knaggs and Gower show that, wild, desolate, and
abandoned as the greater portion of the state now
appears to be, it must, at some very remote time, have
been well known and populated. " At the present
day," says Mr. Skinner, " the principal gold mines are
in the valley of the Pahang, at Lipis, Jelei, Semantan,
and Luet ; gold is also found as far south as the Bera.
There is also a mine of galena on the Kwantam at
Sungei Lembing; and tin is found throughout the
country, both in the neighbourhood of the gold mines
above mentioned, and in places like the river Triang
and the river Bentang, where gold is not worked."
The Pahang Corporation has opened tin mines at
Sungei Lembing and Jeram Batang, another mine at
Kabang having also been commenced. These mines
are situated at the Kuantan district. The gold-bearing,
districts, Punjom and Kaub, have, however, attracted
far more attention from European capitalists. The
principal gold-workings of the peninsula lie almost
entirely along a not very wide Kne drawn from Mounts
Ophir and Segama (the southern limit of the auriferous
chain), through the very heart of the peninsula to the
Kalian Mas or gold-diggings of Patani and Selepin in
the north. The best tin workings of Pahang lie near
the Selangor hills on the river Bentong and near the
gold workings at Jelei and Talom. Pahang tin is said
to be the only tin on the east coast which can rival
that of Perak and Selangor in whiteness and pliancy.
The revenue in 1898 amounted to §224,856, and the
expenditure, inclusive of $71,770 for the loan service,
to $372,719, the excess of expenditure over revenue
being accounted for by the cost of constructing roads
and other works for the development of the state. The
imports in 1898 amounted to $1,147,054, and the
exports to $1,550,34'.!.
THE NEGRI SEMBILAN 269
THE NEGRI SEMBILAN
This is a group of seven states — Johol, Tambin, Sri
Menanti, Jempol, Eembau, Sungei UjoDg, and Jelebu,
tbe two latter having been confederated with the
original group of five in 1895. They occupy together
some 3000 square miles of the interior of the peninsula,
bounded on the north and east by Pahang, on the west
by Malacca, and on the south by Johore. The five
states originally known as the Negri Sembilan were
brought under British protection by Sir Frederick
Weld in 1883, and by an agreement with the respective
chiefs, signed on the 13th July, 1889, they were con-
federated as one Eesidency. They are governed by the
native chiefs or penghulus, assisted by the British
Eesident and Magistrates under him.
Under the later scheme of confederation, brought
into force in 1895, by which Sungei Ujong and Jelebu
were brought in, there are five districts, viz. Seremban,
the Coast, Jelebu, Kuala Pilah, and Tampin. Seremban
is the head office, where the Eesident and heads of
departments reside. Heads of departments are for the
whole state and thus a double staff is saved, as had two
states remained alone it would have been necessary, as
the Negri Sembilan developed, to make further appoint-
ments of European officers. The political affinity of
the States is undoubted, and the same tribal and
customary laws exist in both, together with the system
of the election of the chiefs.
Sungei Ujong and Jelebu have together an area of
about 1200 square nules, and a range of hills in the
north attain a height of about 3800 feet, the slopes of
which have been pronounced by Ceylon planters as
most suitable for the cultivation of coffee, cocoa, etc.
On the lower ground, nearer the coast, tapioca is
successfully cultivated. Tin mining is carried on to a
considerable extent. The river Linggi is the only con-
siderable stream in the state, and was formerly
270 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
navigable for upwards of 40 miles from its mouth.
The principal town of Sungei Ujong is Seramban. The
port of Sungei Ujong was opened on the 1st September,
1884, at Pengkalan Kompas on the Linggi river, at a
distance of about seven miles from the mouth of the
river, and a well-laid-out town has sprung up. Port
Dickson (district and port) lies south-west of Seremban,
and promises to become of some importance. The
harbour has from eleven to fifteen fathoms of water
and is well sheltered. A railway connecting it with
Seremban was opened in July, 1891. The line has
greatly facilitated trade. There is a first-class road
from Pengkalan Kompas to the Eesidency at Seremban,
and thence on to Pantai, a distance altogether of about
31 miles, Pantai being 8 miles from the seat of Govern-
ment and leading to the coffee estates on Bukit Berem-
bun, which are in a flourishing state. To these, a
distance of 13 miles, a cart road has been constructed.
A cart road from Seremban to Setul, 9 miles distant,
and extending to Bernang, 6 miles further on the Selangor
border, has been made, and has opened up an extensive
and rich tin-mining district, which is being rapidly
taken up by the Chinese, who are the real wealth-
producers of the country, as elsewhere in the native
states. Communication with Malacca is kept up by
subsidised steam-launches, and a cart road from the
state to Lubok China in Malacca (five miles) was com-
pleted in 1885. The revenue in 1898 was $701,334
and the expenditure $730,000; in 1897 the revenue
was $572,546 and the expenditure !^G07,313. The
trade returns show a total value of $5,365,000, exports
constituting three-fifths of that sum.
SELANGOR
This protected native state, containing an area of
about 3000 square miles, lies on the western coast of
the Malay I'eninsula, and is bounded by the protected
native states of Perak on the north and Sungie Ujong
SELANGOR 27 1
on the south, extending inland to the mountains in the
centre of the peninsula, which divide it from Pahang
and Jelebu.
The Government consists of the Sultan, advised by
the British Eesident, and assisted by the State Council.
The State is divided into the following six Districts : —
1. — Kwala Lumpiir, the central district where the
Eesidency and principal Government Offices are situ-
ated, and which also contains the richest tin mines that
have yet been developed. 2. — Klang, the principal
port, situated about 14 miles from the mouth of the
Klang Eiver. 3. — Kwala Langat, an agricultural district,
in which the Sultan resides. 4. — Kwala Selangor, con-
taining the most important fisheries in the State. 5. —
Ulu Langat, an inland mining district on the borders
of Sungie Ujong. 6. — l/ho Selangor, a district adjoining
Perak, containing much valuable mining land, as yet
comparatively undeveloped.
Each district is under the charge of a European
District Officer, from whom the Native Penghulus (in
charge of the mukims into which each District is sub-
divided) receive instructions. The Police Force consists
of a superintendent, two European inspectors, and 650
native non-commissioned officers and men, including
227 Sikhs.
The population of Selangor in 1884, when the first
census was taken, was 46,568. According to the census
taken in April, 1891, the total population of the State
amounted to 81,592 persons, of whom 50,844 were
Chinese, 23,750 Malays, 3592 Indians, 1224 Sakeis
(aboriginal tribes), 357 Europeans and Eurasians, and
the remainder Arabs, Singhalese, Bataks, etc. In 1894
the population was estimated at 150,000.
The principal industry of the State, and from which
it derives the largest portion of its revenue, is alluvial
tin mining, on which a duty is charged.
In addition to its mineral resources the State, how-
ever, possesses large tracts of land well adapted for agri-
cultural purposes, and the recent removal of restrictions
2 72 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
on the free importation of Indian coolies into the
Protected Native States renders it possible for European
planters to obtain cheap labour and to open estates on
a large scale. Small plantations of coffee, cocoa, and
pepper have already been successfully commenced, and
rice, sugar, and other products of the peninsula under
native cultivation are doing well in various parts of the
State, and to encourage pioneer planters, large grants
of land have recently been made, on special terms, for
the planting of sago, pepper, and gambler.
The principal exports are tin, hides, garmwood,
tapioca, canes, rattans, and gutta-percha. The principal
imports are opium, salt, salt-fish, rice, oil, tobacco, and
tea. At the commencement of the year 1885, all duties
were abolished, with the exception of those on tin,
opium, and spirits.
There is frequent and regular communication, by
means of coasting steamers, between the Straits Settle-
ments and Selangor, and from Kwala Lumpor a system
of cart- and bridle-roads extends to the boundaries of
Perak, Sungie Ujong, and Pahang. A line of metre-
gauge railway, to connect Kwala Lumpor and Klang
(a distance of 22 miles), was formally opened by Sir^ F.
Weld on the 15th September, 1886, and an extension to
Kwala Kubu was opened on the 6th October, 1894, and
a branch line from Kwala Lumpor to Sungei Besi on
the 28th February, 1895. Eighty-three nules of line
were open for traffic at the end of 1898.
In connection with the railway a line of telegraph
has been erected and extended to Malacca via Sungie
Ujong, where it is connected with the cables of the
E. E., A. & C. Telegraph Co. There is £ilso inland
telegraphic communication between the principal towns.
The revenue in 1898 amounted to $3,862,439 and
the expenditure to $4,470,843; in 1897 the revenue
was $3,688,390 and the expenditure $3,507,845. Public
Works account for $1,267,000 of the expenditure. The
total value of the imports and exports amounted to
$26,825,000.
PERAK 273
PERAK
Perak is on the west coast of the MiUayan Peninsula,
and lies between Kedah, or Queda, on the north, and
Selangor on the south. The coast line is about 90
miles in extent ; the greatest length of the state, in a
north and south direction, is 120 miles, and the breadth,
in an east and west direction, 90 miles. It is estimated
to contain 7959 squai-e miles or 5,087,597 acres ; that
is to say, it is about the size of "Wales and Monmouth
joined together. It has been estimated that there are
on the moiintain ranges of the state 1,451,770 acres
above 1000 feet elevation available for cinchona, coilee,
tea, etc., and that between 1000 feet and the plains
there are 588,422 acres suited to lower cultivations,
such as Liberian coffee, tea, cacao, cardamoms, etc.
The state is well watered by numerous streams and
rivers, of which the river Perak is the most important.
This river runs nearly south until it turns sharply to
the westward and falls into the Straits of Malacca. It
is navigable for about 40 miles from its mouth by
steamers of 300 to 400 tons burden, and for another
125 miles by cargo boats. The upper part of the river
is rocky and abounds in rapids, and consequently,
except for small boats and rafts, is impracticable. The
Kinta, Eatang Padaug, and the Plus are the three large
tributaries of the Perak river, and all are navigable by
cai-go boats. These rivers rise in the main mountain
range and flow west and south until they fall into the
parent stream.
The climate of Perak is good, the temperature in the
low country averaging from 60° Fahr. in the night to
90° Fahr. in the heat of the day. The average mean is
about 70° Fahr. in the night and 87° Fahr. in the day.
The nights are uniformly cool. At 3000 feet the average
is 63° Fahr. at night to 73° Fahr. in the day. The rain-
fall varies considerably, Taiping, the capital, registering
occasionally as much as 200 inches, but the average
T
274 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
elsewhere is about 90 inches. There is no true rainy
season, but the wettest months are September, October,
November, and December, and the driest are February,
March, June, and July.
The state is under British protection and the govern-
ment is carried on under the Sultan, aided and advised
by the Eesident, and a Council consisting of the Resi-
dent and Assistant Eesident and several native chiefs.
A Military Police Force of over 1000 men, mainly
Sikhs and Pathans, is maintained.
The seat of government and the British Eesidency is
at Taiping in the Province of Larut, which is also the
chief town and centre of the Mining industry. Kwala
Kangsa is situated on the right bank of the Perak river,
about due east of the port of Teluk Kertang, from which
a good road leads to it, crossing the western range of
mountains at Bukit Berapit ; the distance is 23 imles.
There is also here a rising village ; and as extensive
tin deposits are known to exist in the neighbourhood,
and are worked by 2000 Chinese at Lalak, it is
probable that the very central position of Kwala
Kangsa will cause it soon to become a place of some
commercial importance. The residence of H.H. the
Sultan is at Bukit Chandon, on the opposite bank of
the river, which is about 200 yards in width. A
magnificent palace has been built for him by Govern-
ment and fitted with English furniture. The surround-
ing scenery is very beautiful, groves of cocoanuts
and fruit trees indicating the villages of the Malay
population.
The most important provinces of Perak are Larut and
Kinta, which have tin deposits of great richness.
Larut is most advantageously situated in respect of
commercial intercourse with the British port of Penang,
which is about 60 miles off. British officers (Magis-
trates and Collectors) and detachments of Police are
stationed in other important districts. A large num-
ber of important public buildings have been constructed
in the various district headquarters, but the principeil
PERAK 275
buildings are erected at Taiping, the capital of the state.
Of these the following may be mentioned : — The prison
(with permanent wards on the separate system), hospitals
with accommodation for 1000 patients, barracks for the
Malay States Guides, markets, police stations, court
house, treasury, post and other Government offices. A
permanent library and museum has been built. Water-
works supply the town of Taiping, the gaol, hospitals,
and other buildings with excellent water in ample
quantity.
Communication with other ports is kept up daily by
small steamers between Penang and Larut, and every
few days to all ports north of Bernam river. A steamer
runs to Teluk Anson from Penang daily. There is
also frequent communication by steamers running
between Penang and Singapore.
The Bindings, including the island of Pangkor and
the district of Binding on the mainland, which is
British territory, come under the administration of the
Straits Government. In the interior of Perak, except
in mining districts, the population is almost entirely
Malay, the exceptions being a few Chinese shopkeepers
and the Government establishments, police, etc., but
tribes of Sakeis and Semangs, the supposed aborigines
of the country, inhabit the distant hills. At Larut, and
at the chief mining settlements in the interior, Kinta,
Batang Padang, etc., the Chinese form a large part of
the population, and according to the census of 1891
numbered 94,000, the Malays numbering 96,000, Euro-
peans 366, Eurasians 289, Tamils 13,000, and Aborigines
5700. The total population of the state was 214,254,
The country is rapicUy increasing in importance. On
the 1st June, 1885, a railway, 8^ miles in length, con-
necting Thaipeng with Port Weld, was formally opened
to traffic. The line was extended to Kamunting in
May, 1890, and to Ulu Sapetang in June, 1892. The
Kinta valley railway, starting from Teluk Anson, runs
through Batang Padang to Batu Gajah and Ipoh, and
thence to Chemor. The first portion between Teluk
276 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
Anson and Batang Padang was opened by Sir Cecil
Smith in May, 1893, and the last portion, between
Tanjong Eambutan and Chemor, was opened in No-
vember, 1896. On 28th June, 1899, the Bukit Merat-
jam section of the Perak-Penang railway was opened.
This line is to extend over 317 miles of country and
connect Penang with Port Dickson ; one half of the
line is now open. The terminus will be at Prai, which
will be connected with Penang by a ferry. It is under-
stood that this extension of the Federated Malay States
Eailway will be further carried forward so as to connect
Province Wellesley and the States with Burma on the
north and Siam on the east. There are about 500 miles
of telegraph and telephone wires in use.
The coimtry is well suited for coffee, and there are
two plantations owned by Europeans doing well, besides
smaller ones owned by natives. Chinese tea of good
quality is grown on the higher mountain ranges, and
pepper flourishes at lower levels. The Government are
encouraging planting, and with the facilities of transit
offered by the new railways and roads, it is expected
that planting will become a very important industry in
the state. The chief drawback at present is the cost of
imported labour.
The only duties levied on exports are a royalty of
$11 per bhara (400 lbs.) on tin, and a royalty of one-
tenth on timber, ataps, and other jungle produce. The
total value of the imports and exports amounted in
1898 to $27,461,374, in 1897 to $24,518,379, and in
1896 to $23,003,602. Tin is the principal export. The
revenue in 1898 was $4,575,842, in 1897 $3,837,558,
and in 1896 $3,960,871, and the expenditure in 1898
$5,560,530, in 1897 $4,178,238, and in 1896 $3,989,376.
Eailways alone accounted for $2,555,000 of the ex-
penditure in 1898, against $1,412,000 in 1897.
[.See page 322.
[Page 27G.
NETHEKLANDS INDIA
NETHEELANDS INDIA
Situation, Area, Population.
The Dutcli possessions in Asia are situated in the
Indian Archipelago, between 6 deg. N. and 11 deg. S. lat.
and 95 deg. 40 sec, and about 141 deg. E. long. They
comprise Sumatra with adjacent islands, the archipelago
of Bintang or Eiouw, the archipelago of Lingga, the
Karimon, Tambelan, Anambas, and Natoena islands,
the Islands Banka and Billiton, Java and Madoera, the
southern part of Borneo, Celebes, and all the other
islands eastward of Borneo and Java to 141 deg. E.
longitude, with the exception of the eastern part of
Timor (Timor-Deli). Java and Madoera extend over
2388'4, the other islands together over 32,397'5 geo-
graphical square mUes.
With regard to the legal position, the population is
divided into Europeans, with those who are considered
equal to them (half-castes, Armenians, Japanese), and
natives, with those who are considered equal to them
(Chinese, Klings, Arabs, etc.). On the 31st December,
1896, the total number of Europeans and of those who
are considered to be equal to them was 63,833, not
including 17,532 in the Army and 2447 in the
Navy. They are of different nationalities. On the
31st December, 1895, there were 11,278 Dutchmen,
born in Europe, 1192 Germans, 292 Belgians, 318
Englishmen, 300 Prenchmen, 184 Swiss, a few from
different countries in Europe, America, etc., and 48,999
descendants of Europeans and half-castes born in
28o NETHERLANDS INDIA
Netherlands India. The number of Chinese in Nether-
lands India on the 31st December, 1896, was 484,398,
of whom 261,080 were in Java and Madoera. The
natives on the same date numbered 25,791,953 in Java
and Madoera, and the total number of natives on all
the other islands together was then calculated at
5,924,001. The number of Arabs was 25,278, of whom
17,045 were in Java and Madoera, and that of other
foreign Orientals (Moors, Bengalese, Klings, Malays,
and African negroes) 12,143, of whom 3238 were in
Java and Madoera. The increase of the population
from 1871 to 1897 was for the Europeans 80 per cent,,
Chinese 87 per cent., and Arabs 99 per cent.
A great part of the Europeans are employed in or
retired from the Government service ; next in number
are the planters, traders and industrials. The Arabs,
Chinese, and other Orientals are almost all tradesmen,
but it must be mentioned that some Chinese are in
possession of or employed on plantations in Java, and
that upwards of 48,000 Chinese are working as labourers
on the tobacco estates on the East Coast of Sumatra,
and that thousands of Chinese labourers are employed
under European superintendence in the exploitation of
the tin mines of Banka and Billiton. The natives are
cultivating the soil ; in the large places they also are
mechanics, but the practice of the handicrafts is for the
greater part in the hands of Chinese.
History, Government.
When the Dutch in the last years of the sixteenth
century established themselves in the Archipelago they
found there the Portuguese. In order to be strong
against other Eui-opean rivals the Dutch East Indian
Company was established in 1602 by charter of the
General States of the United Netherlands, granting a
monopoly for the trade in all the countries east of the
Cape of Good Hope to the Strait of Magellan, and the
right to make treaties with Indian princes, to make
NETHERLANDS INDIA 28 1
war, build fortifications, and give commissions to civil
and military officers, etc. The East Indian Company-
was nearly independent and disposed of large capital.
The first proceedings were commercial, but soon the
Company extended its power and conquered territory
in Java and the Moluccos. The first "loge" was
established at Bantam, then at Jakatra, where the first
Governor-General, J. P. Coen, made a fortress which he
called Batavia (1619). After a long period of great
prosperity the Company fell into decay, the difficulties
increased under a heavy burden of debts, and in 1800
the States-General cancelled the charter and took the
administration of the possessions into their own hands.
At the same time the British, during the war with
France and the Netherlands, conquered the greater part
of the Dutch colonies. In 1802, by the treaty of peace
concluded at Amiens, the colonies, with the exception
of Ceylon, were restored to the Batavian Kepublic, as
the Netherlands were then called, but during the war
with England that was soon afterwards declared the
Dutch again lost all their possessions. After the fall
of Napoleon, in 1816, the greater part of the colonies
were restored to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and
by the London treaty of 17th March, 1824, Malacca
and the establishments on the continent of India were
exchanged for Bencoolen.
Netherlands India is now governed in the name of
the Queen of the Netherlands by a Governor-General,
who is obliged to ask in some cases the advice of the
Council of India, consisting of a vice-President, four
members, and a secretary. He is Commander-in-Chief
of the Army and Navy, and is seconded by a Lieutenant-
General, Commandant of the Army and Chief of the
War Department, and a Vice- Admiral or Eear- Admiral,
Commandant of the Navy and Chief of the Marine
Department, and further by the five Directors of the
Departments of the Home Government, Finance,
Justice, Education, Public Worship and Industry, and
Public Works.
284
NETHERLANDS INDIA
Tobacco
Nutmegs
Gambler
Kapok ...
Copra ...
Kilogrammea.
Gnildere.
... 37,574,528
„
37,443,073
1,771,124
„
2,479,573
7,248,435
»,
1,812,108
2,409,659
„
602,415
... 23,715,196
»,
2,608,671
3,984,679
j»
239,081
1,091,383
»
2,657,205
3,350,427
»
1,005,128
3,696,070
»
591,371
6,257,588
»»
2,503,035
Indigo
Ohinchona
Gom dammar
Gom kopal
Diamonds are found in Borneo, gold in Borneo,
Sumatra, Celebes, and Timor, platinum in Borneo, silver
in small quantities in Borneo and Sumatra, copper in
Timor and Borneo, iron in Celebes, Sumatra, and
Borneo, tin of excellent quality and in large quantities
in Banka, Billiton, and the Carimon islands, and of
inferior quality in some other islands, lead in Sumatra
and Borneo, zinc in small quantities in Sumatra, coal
in Borneo and Sumatra (production in 1897 was 14,847
and 142,850 tons), in Java and in Batjan, jodium and
naphtha in Java, saltpetre in Java, marble in Java and
especially in Sumatra. Salt is produced in Madoera of
excellent quality, and also in the other islands, by
evaporation of the sea water. Kerosine oil is found in
abundance in Java and Sumatra, and gives enormous
profits.
The possession of the soil by the natives is strongly
protected by law. As a general rule the ground cannot
be sold to foreigners, not even to Dutchmen, nor to
their descendants who are born in India. The Govern-
ment is authorised to dispose of uncultivated grounds,
and grant parts of them for a certain period to foreigners
(erfpacht).
On the 31st December, 1895, the stock of cattle in
Java and Madoera consisted of 2,643,223 buffaloes,
2,572,231 other horned cattle, and 485,567 horses
(ponies).
NETHERLANDS INDIA 285
Eevenue, Finances.
The revenue of the colony is derived from different
taxes, viz. export and import duties, excise, ground tax,
licences, poll tax, succession duties and stamp duties,
the rent of farms (opium, gambling-houses, pawn-
brokers' shops, etc., etc.), monopolies (opium, salt), tin
mines, forests, railways, mining, and agricultural con-
cessions, the cultivation of coffee, and sundry petty
articles. In former years the cultivation of coffee was
the principal source of revenue, but of late years there
has been a constant decrease. In the residencies in
Java (except Batavia, Bantom, Tirawing, Djopara,
Eambang, Soerakarta and Djogjokarta), where the
ground is suitable for the cultivation of coffee, a certain
number of natives are obliged to plant every year a
number of coffee trees, to take care of the plantations,
to dry the fruit, and to deliver it into the Government
godowns. They are therefore free of ground tax and
receive a remuneration which is fixed by Government.
In nearly all the residencies of Java and Madoera,
in Sumatra (except Acheen and dependencies), in
Banka, BiUiton, and Borneo, private persons are not
allowed to make nor to import salt. Fine table-salt,
salt for medicinal use, and salt wanted for packing
preserves, can be imported on payment of a duty. The
large bulk of the salt that is wanted for the Government
monopoly is made in Madoera, where the people are
obliged to deliver the salt into the Government godowns
^t the fixed rate of ten guilders per kojan (1853
kilogrammes).
Concerning opium the Government intends to take
the management of the monopoly into its own hands
and to sell the drug on the system of a " regie " to the
population without the intermediation of farmers.
Since 1st September, 1894, the "regie" has, as a trial,
been introduced in Madoera, Lombok, and in four
residencies of Java. In these residencies the sale of
286 NETHERLANDS INDIA
opium otherwise than by " regie " is prohibited. The
Resident grants to certain persons a permit to open
certain houses where the opium can be sold and smoked.
It is forbidden to keep a stock of opium not derived
from the " r^gie " and the monopoly of the Government
is strongly protected by penalties. The revenue of the
opium monopoly is calculated for 1899 at 19,152,000
guilders, of which 3,988,000 are from the " regie."
The tin mines of Banka are exclusively worked by
Government; the management of the exploration, the
melting of the ore, and the transport of the tin to the
godowns being in the hands of Chinese mining corpo-
rations (kongsi's) or of private contractors and their
labourers. A private company holds a concession for
the tin mines in Billiton, and pays a duty for the
farming of the mines. The quantity exported in 1897
was 13,586,365 kilogrammes, valued at 10,869,091
guilders.
The monetary system of Netherlands India consists
of gold coins of the value of ten guilders, silver coins of
two guilders and a half, of one guilder, and of half a
guilder (these coins are the same as those in the
Netherlands) ; besides silver coins of f.0-25 and f.OlO,
bearing Malay and Javanese inscriptions, and copper
coins of f 0-01 (one cent), of f.0025 and f.0005. The
issue of Bank notes is a monopoly of the Java Bank.
These Bank notes are of the value of f.lOOO, f.500,
f.300, f.200, f.lOO, f.50, f.25, f.lO, and f.5, and payable
to bearer on demand. The head ofl&ce of the Java
Bank is at Batavia, and there are agencies at Cheribon,
Semarang, Soerabaia, Soerakarta, Djogjokarta, Padang,
and Macasser.
Aemy and Navy.
The Army of Netherlands India numbers 1421 officers
and 41,157 non-commissioned officers and men. It is
separate from and independent of the Netherlands
Army. The Commandant is appointed by the Queen.
Besides the Army there are different armed troops, viz. :
NETHERLANDS INDIA 287
ffi. The "Schuttery," being guards residing in some
of the larger places designed to co-operate with the
Army in maintaining the peace. These guards number
about 3000 men, mostly Europeans, and a few natives
and foreign orientals. The of&cers get a commission
from the Governor-General.
&. The Legion of the Native Prince Mangkoe Negoro,
consisting of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, numbering
about 850 men.
c. Barisan, being native infantry of Madoera, 1400
men, designed to maintain the peace in the island. In
case of war in other islands they also participate in the
campaigns.
d. Dragoon Guards of the Soesoehoenan of Soerakarta
and the Sultan of Djogjokarta.
e. Police soldiers.
The Netherlands Navy in these Colonies numbers
238 of&cers and 2232 European and 1001 native non-
commissioned of&cers and sailors, and consists of
25 men-of-war. There is, besides, the Colonial Navy,
consisting of 29 smaller ships with 113 Europeans and
715 natives, employed for transport duty and for
maintaining the peace in the waters of the Archipelago.
Public Woeship, Education.
The Protestant clergymen are appointed by the
Queen ; they are 41 in number. The Eoman Catholic
priests are appointed by the Pope and recognised by or
in the name of the Queen. The Jews have no priests
and are so few that in no place have they a synagogue.
The Government does not interfere with Mahommedan
worship, but pilgrims to Mecca require to take out
passports and are obliged to prove that they have
suf&cient money to pay for the voyage and to support
their families during their absence. Chinese religion
is as free as all other kinds of public worship.
The Educational Department sustains a great many
schools for Europeans and natives. At Batavia,
288 NETHERLANDS INDIA
Semarang, and Soerabaia are schools for higher educa-
tion ; Soerabaia has also a school for telegraph operators,
mechanical engineers, etc. There are, further, 121
Government schools and 19 private schools in Java
and 37 Government schools and one private school in
the other islands, having on the 31st December, 1897,
17,640 pupils, among whom were 1232 native children.
Five colleges are devoted to the instruction of native
schoolmasters, while 501 Government vernacular schools
and 642 private vernacular schools give instruction to
upwards of 123,222 pupils. The greater number of
these private schools are managed by missionaries. In
Batavia and Samarang are private schools for mechanical
engineers and handicraft.
In a great many places private persons can be
admitted into the military hospitals, while in the large
towns general hospitals are maintained for poor natives
and Chinese, and other hospitals for infectious diseases.
Asylums for the insane are maintained at Buitenzorg,
Soerabaia, and Semarang.
Trade, Navigation.
Eiouw, Macasser, Menado, Kema, Ternate, Amboina,
Kajeli, Banda and Koepang are free ports. The other
ports are open either for general trade or only for
native coasting navigation. Entrepots, where goods
can be stored and sold, and from whence they can be
exported without payment of import or export duties,
are established at Batavia, Cheribon, Semarang, Soera-
baia, Padang, Siboga, Baros and Singkel.
The value of imports in 1897 was in JavB and Madoera 117,498,408
In the other islands ... ... ... ... , . , 64'207'l40
Total 181,705,548
The value of exports in 1897 was from Java and Madoera 142,197,962
And from the other islands 68,216 316
Total 210,414,278
NETHERLANDS INDIA 289
The mercantile marine of Netherlands India consisted,
in December, 1897, of 2090 ships, of which 8 were
steamers, with a tonnage of 249,065 cubic metres.
In 1897 there arrived from abroad —
Cubic metres.
8,887 steamers tonnage 4,179,710
206 European sailing vessels ... „ 373,215
1,632 native sailing vessels ... „ 135,088
Total 5,725 vessels with a tonnage of 4,688,013
and in the same year departed —
Cubic metres.
3,786 steamers tonnage 4,004,735
197 European sailing vessels 361,105
1,518 native sailing vessels 129,457
5,501 4,495.297
Import duties are imposed in Java and Madoera, the
West coast of Sumatra, Acheen (excepted the Isle of
Way), Bencoolen, Lampongs, Palembang, Banka, Billi-
ton and S.E. Borneo, but not in the islands of the
Eiouw residency, in the Government of Celebes and in
the Eesidencies Amboina, Ternate and Timor. The
import duty is fixed ad valorem or according to the
weight or the dimensions, most of the goods being
separately mentioned in the tariff. Most of the metals,
machinery, raw materials, as lime and wood, horses and
cattle, and articles of art and science are free of import
duty. Export duty is only paid on a few articles
according to value or quantity, for instance, hides
2 per cent., birds' nests 6 per cent, of the value, coffee
f.l, tin f.3-50, indigo f.lO for 100 kilogrammes. Transit
cargo is free.
An excise is charged on liquors of 5 per cent^ on
alcohol, on kerosine oil (f2-50 per hectoliter), on
matches f.0-7 per gross and on tobacco.
Commercial intercourse is much advanced by the
Steam Navigation Company, " Koninklyke Paketvaart
Maatschappij," possessing 31 steamers plying across
the whole Archipelago. These steamers have splendid
accommodation for saloon passengers.
U
290 NETHERLANDS INDIA
Public Works.
There are now 1731 kilometres of railway in Java
and 312*5 kilometres in Sumatra; and 667"5 kilo-
metres of tramway in Java. The telegraphs extend
over 6,833'88 kilometres, the telegraph cables over
1,672'53, together 8,506*41 kilometres. The net receipts
of the Post and Telegraph services amounted to
f.475,561,51 ; the number of stations was 344 for Java
and Madoera and 93 for the other islands.
BATAVIA
Batavia, the residence of the Government of Nether-
lands India, is situated in 106 deg. 48 min. E. long, and
6 deg. 7 min. S. lat. The old city is built in the ancient
Dutch style and was till the beginning of this century
surrounded by fortifications, which have since been
demolished. It has always been unhealthy, but in
1699 the unfavourable conditions were greatly increased
by an eruption of Mount Salak, masses of mud and
sand being washed up by the river Tjiliwong, so that
drainage became very difficult. On account of this
unhealthy condition only very few Europeans remain
day and night in the old city. The fine large houses
are employed for offices and godowns, and in the
afternoon, when business is finished, most of the
Europeans retire to the new town, which is situated
south of the old city and built in modern style. Broad
roads and spacious squares and nice bungalows sur-
rounded by gardens form there a healthy place. It
was Marshall Daendels who in the first years of this
century began to build the new town with the con-
struction of barracks and the palace that was designed
to be the residence of the Governor-General, but has
never been used as such. It is now utilised for
Government offices. It contains the large assembly
B ATA VIA 291
room for the Governor- General and the Council for
India, which room contains the portraits of all the
Governors-General of Netherlands India. The palace
is situated on the west side of the Waterloo Square,
where are to be seen a monument of the battle of
Waterloo, another monument to General Michiels, and
a bronze statue of Jan Pieterszoon Coen, which was
unveiled when the 250 years' existence of Batavia was
celebrated. On the right and left of the palace are the
Supreme Court and the Military Club Concordia. At
a short distance from the Waterlooplein is another and
larger square, the Koningsplein, each side of which is
nearly one mile long. The square is surrounded by
elegant, comfortable houses, the residences of the higher
officials and wealthy merchants. There is also a fine
church, Willemskerk, near the railway station, and the
museum of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences.
The old city and the new are connected by two
railways, one tramway, and wide roads for carriages.
Different Banks and Banking Corporations have
agencies at Batavia, viz. — The Netherlands Trading
Society (Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij), with
a capital of f.35,783,000 and a reserve capital of
f.2,536,444-12, gave a dividend of 6 per cent, in 1897.
The Netherlands Indian Mercantile Bank (Nederlandsch
Indische Handelsbank), with a capital of f.7,200,000
and a reserve capital of f 1,373,528-70, promotes trade,
industry, and agriculture in Netherlands India, advances
money to agricultural estates and for the trade in
produce. The Colonial Bank, capital f.10,000,000, also
supplies capital to estates and promotes agricultural
enterprise. The Netherlands Indian Escompto Com-
pany, with a capital of f.3,000,000 and a reserve capital
of f.167,000, does general banking business, advances
money on shares, etc. There are also agencies of the
Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation and of
the Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and China.
The port of Tandjong Priok is in communication
with Batavia by railway and by a canal. The outer
292 NETHERLANDS INDIA
harbour is formed by two piers 1850 metres long ; the
entrance is 125 metres wide, and the depth is 8 metres.
The inner harbour has a quay 1100 metres long and
175 metres wide ; the water has a depth of 7"50 metres.
There is extensive accommodation for coaling, and in
the docks and workshops all kinds of repairs to vessels
can be made. The expenses for the construction of the
harbour and annexed works amounted to 26^ millions
of guilders.
The harbour was visited in 1890 by 647 steamers and .53 sailing ships
„ „ 1892 „ 805 „ „ 55 „
1894 „ 812 „ „ 177
The population of Batavia consisted on the 31st
December, 1896, of 9423 Europeans, 26,433 Chinese,
2828 Arabs, 132 other foreign Orientals, and 76,751
natives ; total, 115,567.
BUITENZORG
The usual residence of the Governor-General is at
Buitenzorg, at a distance of a little more than one hour
by railway from Batavia. The population of Buitenzorg
numbers about 25,000, of whom 1500 are Europeans.
The botanical gardens near the palace of the Governor-
General were made in 1817, and are well known not
only for their beautiful arrangement, but especially
for the great services rendered to science and agri-
culture under the management of the eminent directors
Teysmann, Dr. Scheffer, and Prof. Dr. Treub. All
experiments for the introduction of exotic plants into
Netherlands India are made here, with the result that
many useful plants from foreign countries are reared
and flourish in Java as in their native soiL
SOERABAIA 293
SOERABAIA
Soerabaia, situated 112 deg. 44 iiiin. E. longitude and
7 deg. 14 min. S. latitude, has 142,980 inhabitants, of
whom 6988 are Europeans. The voyage from Batavia
to Soerabaia can be done in two days by the railway,
which extends to Panaroekan. The old city is not like
that of Batavia, deserted during the night, but is the
most busy part of the place. The fortifications that
were built at enormous expense are now partially de-
molished. The roadstead is very safe and protected by
tlie island of Madoera, and trade is in a flourishing
condition, the godowns near the Oedjoeng being in
direct communication by rail with the large railway
that extends all over the island to Semai-ang and
Batavia. Government workshops and private manu-
factories do very much to increase the welfare of the
industrious population, among whom are a great many
Dutchmen employed by the ai'tiUery establishments.
Between the Kali Mas and the floating dock are the
naval establishments for the construction and repairing
of ships and vessels, machinery, boilers, etc., etc.
A great many Europeans are still residing in the old
city, though the outer part is preferred and has the
reputation of being healthier, while the houses are not
built close to each other but are separated by gardens.
The suburb Simpang is especially well known. Here
is situated the house of the Resident and the well-known
large hospital. Along the Genteng Eoad, which forms
the communication with Soerabaia, several fine houses
are built in European style and surrounded by shady
gardens.
294 NETHERLANDS INDIA
SEMAEANG
Semarang is situated in 110 deg. 25 min. E. longi-
tude and 6 deg. 58 min. S. latitude. The population is
84,266, of whom 3355 are Europeans. The old city is
small, with narrow streets and lanes. On the west side
of the river are the residence of the Eegent, the Mosque,
the Hospital, the Court of Justice, and different Govern-
ment offices.
The railway from Semarang to Djogjokarta is ex-
tended to the new harbour canal, so that travellers
arriving in the roadstead can continue the journey to
the interior without delay at Semarang. The roads of
Semarang do not afford the same accommodation as the
harbour of Tandjong Priok, but the view of the city
and surroundings is very fine.
PADANG
Padang, the capital of the West Coast of Sumatra, is
situated 100 deg. 20 min. E. longitude and 58 min. S.
latitude. The population is 35,158, of whom 1640 are
Europeans. The abundant vegetation, the extensive
cocoanut plantations, and pleasant lanes give the im-
pression of a large park or an immense native village,
in which a few European bungalows are built. The
bungalows are constructed of wood and bamboo, the
floor is raised some feet above the groimd, and the
roofs are covered with tapa leaves. The mountain
scenery in the background and the large plan on which
the place is designed, make Padang one of the most
pleasant towns of Netherlands India, though the public
buildings and private residences do not have a grand
appearance. Padang is one of the most healthy coast
places, land and sea winds contributing very much to
lower the temperature.
MACASSER 295
To the south of Padang is the Emma Haven, a sea-
port that is in communication by rail with Padang and
with the Ombilien coal-fields, and where steamers can
always anchor in perfect safety. Excellent arrange-
ments have been made for coaling so that annually
200,000 tons of coal can be shipped.
MACASSER
Macasser, the capital of Celebes and dependencies, is
situated 119 deg. 24 min. E. longitude and 5 deg. 8 min.
S. latitude. The population numbers 17,200, of whom
836 are Europeans. As a free port and principal centre
of the trade in the Eastern part of the Archipelago the
place has great importance. The fort Rotterdam com-
mands the roadstead and the northern and southern
entrances. The place is nicely built, a fine lane with
tamarind trees forming the thoroughfare of the principal
part, where the Government House and other public
buildings are situated, and leading on both sides to
large squares covered with grass, the Konings Plein
and Prins Hendrik Plein. The busy part of the place
is Passar Street, where houses with colonnades give the
impression of a town of southern Europe. Near the
European Settlement the natives have made their vil-
lages. The surrounding country is low and marshy,
and covered with rice-fields and kampongs. The
mountains, with the Peak of Bonthain in the distance,
afford a fine view, especially in the evening when they
are not covered by the fogs that rise from the plains.
THE EAST COAST OF SUMATRA
This part of the East Coast of the Island of Sumatra is
situated between the Government of Acheen and its
Dependencies in the North, the Straits of Malacca in
the East, Indragiri (a part of the Eesidency of Kionwo
296 NETHERLANDS INDIA
and its dependencies) in the South, and the independent
Giijoo, Alas, Batak and Malay States of the centre of
Sumatra in the West. It includes a great number of
semi-independent States, each of which is ruled by a
native Prince or Chief who, according to his rank and
dependency, is styled. Sultan, Yang di Pertuan, Kedju-
ruan, Eajah, Datu, etc. The country is administered
by a Eesident, two Assistant- Eesidents, 14 Controleurs,
and 4 Assistant-Controleurs. Justice is dispensed by
the Landraad of Medan and Bindjei, Tandjung Balei
and Bengkalis, the Eesidency court at Medan, the
Magistrates and by native courts or Karapattan. Lead-
ing cases are tried at Batavia. The staple industry of
the country is Agriculture and Mining, and this being
dependent upon imported labour (Chinese and Javanese),
the labour question is carefully guarded by a special
coolie ordinance. AU coolies are indentured under
advances. The employer must house his people pro-
perly, provide them with medical attendance and food
when sick, and monthly payments are compulsory.
Land tenure : land is leased from the ruling prince or
chief of the district for a certain amount of years, so
much per bahu or per acre being paid down, and f.l
per bahu or per acre per annum being paid as annual
quittance.
The supremacy of the Dutch Government is based
upon political treaties with each of the Princes, in
whose hands is left the jurisdiction over their own
subjects, except so far as relates in the infliction of the
death penalty and the disposal of land or landed
property. Land contracts with Europeans, while made
between the ruling prince and the concessionaire, are
subject to the approval of the Resident. Mining con-
tracts require the approval of the Governor- General of
the Netherlands-Indies. In all the states the Dutch
Government has bought the right to collect the customs
duties and the ordinary revenues. Land revenue, col-
lected by Government officials, is at the disposal of the
native rulers and bis chiefs. The principal state on the
THE EAST COAST OF SUMATRA 297
East Coast of Sumatra, both from the rank of its ruler
and historically, is Siak. The best known of the states,
however, is Deli, where tobacco planting was first intro-
duced, and by which name the whole of the East Coast
is sometimes designated. Deli, Langkat, Serdang, Assa-
han, and other tobacco-growing districts, are celebrated
throughout the world for their fine silky tobacco-leaf,
which is specially fitted for the outside wrappers of
cigars, being at once light in weight and elastic and
strong in texture. The leading tobacco company is the
Deli Maatschappij, which for 25 years has paid a
dividend averaging 75 per cent, per annum. The minor
agricultural products are Liberian coffee, cocoa-nuts and
pepper. Jungle produce, formerly exported consider-
ably, is getting scarcer, by reason of the jungle being
felled for the purpose of planting tobacco. The pro-
duction of paddy, though considerable, falls short of the
demand by many thousand bags, which are mostly
imported from the Straits Settlements. Of all the
different states Asahan only is in a position to export
a large quantity of paddy to the Straits Settlements.
Kerosine oil is exported from Langkat to the Straits
Settlements, British India, Hongkong, Siam, China,
and Java. This article is of importance for that dis-
trict, and is still more promising for the future.
Almost all necessaries of life have to be imported, and
a brisk trade between Java, the Straits Settlements,
and the East Coast is the consequence.
Medan (Deli), the residence of the highest civil and
military ofi&cials, is a pleasant little town, laid out in a
modern style, the streets fitted up with electric light.
A splendid architectural Government House is being
built for the Eesident in the new quarter of Polonia.
In the town two banking corporations — the Neder-
landsche Handel Maatschappij and the Chartered
Bank of India, Australia, and China — have their
branches. There are two very good hotels, two clubs, a
Eace-club, numerous houses of business, Chinese,
Japanese, Indian, Malay, Bombay and Kling shops, etc.
298 NETHERLANDS INDIA
The port of Belawan Deli, on the Belawan Eiver,
is in communication with Medan by railway. Other
important ports are those of Pangkalan Brandan, Tand-
jong Poera, Tandjong Balei, Bengkalis, Bagan Api Api
and Siak.
The population of this Eesidency amounted in 1897
to 1829 Europeans, 85,106 Chinese, 6996 Arabs and
other Orientals, and 234,628 natives.
THE PHILIPPINES
THE PHILIPPINES
The Philippines, discovered by the Portuguese Fer-
nando de Magalhaens (Magellan), are a rich and
beautiful group of islands, situate between lat. 5 and
22 deg. K, and long. 117 and 127 deg. E., and form a
Spanish colony. They are surrounded on the north
and west by the China Sea, on the east by the Pacific,
and on the south by the Celebes Sea. The islands are
over a thousand in number, and contain an area of
52,647 English square miles, with a population, in 1876,
of 6,173,632 souls. At the end of 1883 the population,
including the army and navy, was estimated at
7,636,632. The principal islands are divided into
twenty-six provinces, thirteen of which are on the Isle
of Luzon, four on the Isle of Negros, three on Panay,
and three on the Isle of Mindanao. The islands were
formally annexed to the Crown of Spain in 1565, The
first Governor was Don Miguel Lopez de Legaspi.
The early history of the Philippines is a record of
continual trouble. Conflicts between the civil and
ecclesiastical authorities led to internal contentions,
while both Portugal and the Netherlands coveted these
rich possessions and harassed the Spaniards. In 1606
the Dutch blockaded the ports with five ships, which
were, however, destroyed by the Spanish fleet. Attacks
were also made at different points by powerful Chinese
piratical fleets. The most celebrated of these was the
invasion by Li Ma Hon, who with 2000 men landed at
302 THE PHILIPPINES
Manila in 1572, but was defeated and driven out by the
Spaniards and natives, under the leadership of Juan de
Salcedo. In 1762 the capital was taken by the English,
the private property of the inhabitants being saved from
plunder on the condition of the payment of a ransom
of £1,000,000 sterling, half of which was paid in money
and the other half in bills upon the Spanish Treasury,
In the mean time, however, peace had been concluded,
and the islands were restored to Spain, payment of the
balance of the indemnity not being insisted upon.
After the discovery of the islands, ecclesiastics flocked
to them in large numbers, and undisturbed by the
attacks on Spanish authority, the work of converting
the natives was carried on with great vigour. The
religious orders in a short time acquired great power
and became in effect the dominant authority. The
clergy before the recent capture of Manila by the
Americans (since when many have left) numbered
about two thousand, and most of the natives brought
under subjection profess the Eoman Catholic religion.
In the Philippines there has been little of that cruelty
to the aboriginal population which so often characterises
the process of colonisation, and the natives appeared
in general contented and well conducted, the priests
exercising the almost unbounded influence they pos-
sessed with great effect in the preservation of order.
There was, however, an undercurrent of seditious feel-
ing, and after attempts made to throw off the Spanish
yoke in 1822, 1841, 1842, 1872, and 1896, the Insurgents'
opportunity came in 1898, when, upon the outbreak
of hostilities between the United States and Spain,
they offered to co-operate with the former. The offer
was accepted, with the result that while Americans
took and held the city of Manila the Insurgejits over-
threw Spanish authority throughout the remainder of
the island of Luzon and established a Government of
their own with General Aguinaldo as Dictator. By the
Hispano-American treaty of peace the whole of the
Philippine Archipelago was ceded to the United States,
THE PHILIPPINES 303
but this arrangement was not acquiesced in by the
Insurgents, who claimed independence, and the United
States are now engaged in a war of subjugation. In
the inaccessible mountainous parts of the islands there
are still tribes of aboriginal savages, but their number
is comparatively small. In the last census returns the
number of natives not subject to the civil government
and paying no tribute was given as 602,853, while the
number of natives paying tribute was returned as
5,501,356. There is a considerable number of mestizos
or half-castes, some of whom are the children of
European fathers by native mothers, and some the
children of Chinese fathers.
The public revenue prior to the subversion of Spanish
rule was about $15,000,000, of which the larger part
was raised from direct taxes. Customs, monopolies, and
lotteries.
The chief articles of produce are sugar, hemp, tobacco,
and coffee. The foreign trade is confined to the ports
of Manila, Iloilo, Cebu, and Zamboanga.
The climate of the Philippines varies little from that
of other places in the same latitude. The range of the
thermometer during the year is from a little over sixty
degrees to about ninety. The year may be divided into
three seasons — the first, cold and dry, commences in
November ; the second, warm but still dry, commences
in March, the greatest heat being experienced from
April to the end of May, and the third, which is ex-
cessively wet, continues from June to the middle of
November. During the rainy season inundations of
rivers are frequent and travelling in the interior almost
impossible. Long-continued droughts, however, some-
times occur, when the ground becomes parched and the
crops are utterly destroyed. Husbandry also suffers
from the ravages of locusts, which will sometimes
almost entirely denude a whole province of herbage.
The principal part of the group comes within the range
of the typhoons, and terrific storms are of frequent
occurrence. The islands are also the centre of great
304 THE PHILIPPINES
volcanic action. " The destructive ravages and changes
produced by earthquakes," says Sir John Bowring,
writing in 1859, "are nowhere more remarkable than
in the I'hilippines. They have overturned mountains,
they have filled up valleys, they have desolated extensive
plains; they have opened passages from the sea into
the interior, and from the lake into the sea. There are
many traditional stories of these territorial revolutions,
but of late disasters the records are trustworthy. That
of 1796 was sadly calamitous. In 1824 many churches
in Manila were destroyed, together with the principal
bridge, the barracks, great numbers of private houses ;
and a chasm opened of nearly four miles in length.
The inhabitants all fled into the fields, and six vessels
in the port were wrecked. The number of victims was
never ascertained. In 1828, during another earthquake,
the vibration of the lamps was found to describe an arc
of four and a haK feet ; the huge corner stones of the
principal gate of the city were dSsplaced ; the great bells
were set ringing. It lasted between two and three
minutes, rent the walls of several churches and other
buildings, but was not accompanied by subterranean
noises, as is usually the case." In 1832, 1852, 1863,
1869, and 1880 there were terrible shocks of earthquake
and, in 1891, in the Province of Pangasinan shocks
were continually repeated during a month, shaking
down buildings, crushing their inmates, and creating a
panic among the inhabitants.
The local storms that come in the months of May
and June, the period of the greatest heat, are at times
very severe. On the 29th May, 1873, there was one of
sufficient force to destroy within the walls of Manila
alone forty-one dwellings. Typhoons also sweep over
the islands in great fury, and the one of the 20th
October, 1882, left thousands without shelter, the wind
in its fury tearing down many of the native huts as
well as more solid structures in brick and stone ; floods
were caused by the heavy rain, and great loss of life
and property resulted.
THE PHILIPPINES 305
The Philippine Archipelago is divided into three
great groups of islands called Luzon, Visayas or Bisayas,
and Mindanao. Luzon includes the provinces of Manila,
Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Zambales, Bataan, New
Ecija, Pangasinan, North Ilocos, Abra, Union, Nev?
Viscaya, Cagayan, Laguna, Batangas, Tayabas, Albay,
North and South Camarines, Sorsogon, and the districts
of Principe, Lepanto, Bontoc, Benguet, Morong, and
Infanta, and the adjacent islands Babuyanes and
Batanes on the North, Polillo, Alhabat, Catanduanes,
and Marianas on the East, Mindoro, Burias, Masbate
and Marinduque on the South, and Calamianes, Para-
guay, and Balabac on the East. The second group, the
Bisayas or Visayas, is made up of Cebu, Bohol, Samar,
Leyte, and the island of Negros with its districts Capiz,
Eomblon, Iloilo, and Conception, and of the adjacent
islands Sibuyan, Banton, Tablas, Luciara, Maestro de
Campo, Bantayan, Dauis, and Camote to the North and
N.E., and of the island of Fuego or Siquijor to the
South. The third group, or sea of Mindanao, is divided
into the districts of Zamboanga, Misamis, Suriago, New
Guipuzgoa, Davao Bislig, and Basilan, with the adjacent
islands Camiguin, Caburao, Duiagat Asgno, Oyarzal,
and Vivero to the N.E. ; Siluanga and General on the
East; Buentua, Tengquil, Balanguingi, and Sulu with
all the islands that make up the group of that name in
the S.E. Altogether there are estimated to be 1200
islands in the Philippine Archipelago. Its wealth of
timber is incalculable, yielding resins, gums, masticli-
pastes, dye-products, fine-grained ornamental woods,
also heavy timber suitable for building purposes. There
are also mines in abundance in Mencayan and Lepanto.
In Lupac and Agbas copper is found, and copper and
iron pyrites in Suyne. In Paracale and North Cama-
rines there are veins of gold worked by the natives. In
the rivers of Sapan, Casiguran, and New Ecija there
are found gold pyrites of good quality, and in Mambulao
and Camarines there are some gold mines in operation.
There are many hot springs of iron and sulphur waters,
X
3o6 THE PHILIPPINES
all of excellent medicinal properties. The famous
" Holy Waters " of Tuii and Sibu are visited every year
in large numbers by the islanders seeking relief from
their sufferings. The endemic complaints of the country
are swamp fever, diarrhoea, beri-beri, and a few others.
Incurable leprosy is very limited among the natives.
The mortality is low, considering the number of
inhabitants.
Dr. Augustin de la Cavada, a Spanish historian, says
of the natives that they are of a mild, submissive, and
respectful disposition, predisposed to religious observ-
ances, extremely superstitious, and very hospitable.
Those of Batangas, Cagayan, and Southern Ilocos are
better workers and more industrious than those of the
other Provinces. During their youth they work with
energy and a certain intellectual vigour, but on reaching
a more advanced age they lose a large part of their
disposition for work and lapse into an indolence that is
one of their greatest defects. The women are averse to
idleness and have a spirit of enterprise, and they often
engage in various trades with success. They are
economical and sacrifice themselves with delight for
the sake of those for whom they feel any affection.
The rivers and streams of the Philippines are countless
and traverse the islands in all directions, the natural
result of mountain peaks and ranges that extend over
a large area.
The most noteworthy volcanoes are Buheyan in
Mindanao, Taal in Batangas, and Bulusan and Mayon
in Albay. The last is in continual eruption and at
times creates terror in the surrounding country on
account of the quantity of boiling water, ashes, and lava
it throws out. In 1872 an eruption of this volcano
destroyed entirely the villages of Malinao, Camalig,
Guinobatan, Ligao, Polangui, and Albay.
The principal articles of export from the Philippines
are sugar, hemp, tobacco, and cigars. In 1898 the
export of sugar was 2,843,116 piculs, as against 3,233,483
piculs in 1897 ; that of hemp 1,585,212 piculs as against
MANILA 307
1,804,576 piculs in 1897, that of leaf tobacco 145,055
quarters, as against 309,585 quarters in 1897 ; and that
of cigars 129,840 thousands as against 169,465 thousands
in 1897.
MANILA
Manila, the capital of the Philippines, is situated on
the western side of the island of Luzon, at the mouth of
the river Pasig, which empties itself into the Bay of
Manila, and the city is now held by the forces of the
United States. War having been declared between
the United States and Spain, the fleet of the former on
the 1st May, 1898, sailed into Manila Bay and totally
destroyed the Spanish fleet, practically with no loss to
the attacking side. Thereafter the city was blockaded
until the 13th August, when, a Military force having
arrived, the Americans took possession after an almost
unresisted assault.
The city was founded in 1571. In 1645 it was
almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, in which
upwards of three hundred lives were lost. In 1863 a
great part of the city was again destroyed from the
same cause, and in July, 1880, another terrible upheaval
made wreck of a great portion of it. The inhabitants
are naturally in constant fear of these visitations. The
dwelling-houses are built with especial reference to
safety under such circumstances, and, although large,
possess few pretensions to architectural beauty. The
city is practically divided into two parts, the official or
waUed city being built on the left bank of the Pasig
river, while the commercial city is situated on the
island of Binondo, which forms the right bank of the
same river. The Escolta, the main business street,
traverses this suburb, and in it most of the European
stores and bazaars are to be found. The Eozario,
another broad thoroughfare in Binondo, is occupied
chiefly by Chinese shops, and is a busy quarter. San
3o8 The PHILIPPINES
Miguel is the aristocratic suburb, being the seat of the
residences of the wealthy merchants and other residents.
Around the walls and the edge of the bay is a fashion-
able drive lined with almond trees, where the well-to-do
inhabitants walk, drive, and meet their friends. The
architecture of Manila is not imposing, successive
earthquakes having wrought much damage, and the
city has an old-world aspect, tempered by its tropical
surroundings. The streets present the greatest anima-
tion in the evening, when the cigar factories are closed
and the carriages of the upper classes are out for
the customary promenade. There are several ancient
churches which are worthy of notice. The Cathedral,
founded originally in 1578, has been several times
destroyed by earthquakes and did not escape in 1863. It
has been since rebuilt, but again sustained considerable
damage in 1880, when the tower was so much shat-
tered that it had to be pulled down. There are several
theatres, but none worthy of the place. The opera
is well supported in Manila. A statue of Charles IV.
stands in the centre of the Palacio Square, and one
of Isabella II. opposite to the Variedades Theatre.
The Observatory, admirably managed by the Jesuit
Fathers, is well worthy of a visit. There is a good
English Club. Of the hotels the Hotel de Oriente is
the principal. The city and its suburbs contain a
population of 300,000 and are the seat of a considerable
and yearly increasing commerce. The principal articles
of export are hemp, sugar, tobacco, cigars, coffee, and
indigo, while of the imports cotton goods form the chief
item. The anchorage is distant some three miles from
the shore. The river presents a scene of great anima-
tion, being crowded with native craft interspersed with
vessels of foreign build. The hot season commences in
March and continues until July. The rains commence
in August and continue to December, during which
time the roads and streets get into a very bad condition.
The maximum annual rainfall recorded is 114 inches
and the minimum 84 inches. The maximum of the
JIAN-JLA. THE JiHCULTA.
[I'lige 308.
MANILA 309
thermometer is about 92 ; a cool sea breeze sets in at
night, reducing the heat to an endurable temperature
for sleeping. According to the census of 1883 there
were residing in Manila 250 foreigners of European
origin, 4189 European Spaniards, 15,157 Chinese,
46,066 Chinese mestizos (or half-breeds), 3849 Spanish
mestizos, and 160,896 pure natives.
In 1880 special dues were imposed on the trade of
the port for the construction of a new harbour, namely,
2 per cent, on imports, 1 per cent, on exports, tonnage
dues, and a tax on fishing boats. Up to the time of the
American occupation a large sum had been collected,
but comparatively little progress had been made with
the works.
Tramways run in the principal streets of the city,
and a railway to Dagupan was opened to traffic through-
out its entire length, 123 miles, on the 23rd November,
1892. There is also a steam road to Malabon; and
electric lights have been laid in the public squares and
walks, in the business houses, and in the principal
streets. There are a marine arsenal and a patent slip
at Cavite, on the opposite side of the Bay,
The city and its suburbs receive their drinking water
by pipes leading from Santalan, on the river Pasig.
The water is carried to fountains, distributed in con-
venient places through the streets, whence the inhab-
itants may draw for their domestic needs. The
telephone system extends throughout the city and out
as far as Malabon. Manila possesses many educational
and charitable institutions, among others the Eoyal and
Pontifical University of St. Thomas, which is managed
and maintained by the Dominican Fathers. In this
there are schools of theology and church law, juris-
prudence, notarial law, medicine, and pharmacy. The
College of St. Thomas, which belongs to the University,
maintains forty free scholarships for Spanish boys, who
may pursue both primary and advanced studies. The
College of San Juan de Letran, also under the Domi-
nicans, devotes itself to the education of natives, and
310 THE PHILIPPINES
this college, as well as the other, is provided with an
abundance of select scientific materials and with good
physical and chemical outfits and exhibits and museums
ot natural history and fine arts. The College of San
Jose (St. Joseph) gives instruction in medicine and
pharmacy. The Orphan Asylum of Cambobong, founded
by the Ladies' Union at Manila in 1882, is in charge of
the Augustinians and imparts elementary and advanced
instruction and qualifies boys for clerical situations
both in public and business offices. The Mandaloya
Orphanage, likewise under the care of the Augustinians
and of the sisters of that order, gives to its inmates
elementary instruction and teaches them household
duties and other accomplishments suited to their sex.
The St. Joseph's Home, founded in 1810, gives shelter
to poor and demented children. The Hospital of San
Juan de Dios, founded by the Brotherhood of Miseri-
cordia in 1595, cares for whatever invalids present
themselves. It has six physicians, one pharmaceutist,
one lady superior, twenty-two sisters, two chaplains,
one head nurse, eight resident medical students, and the
number of other qualified assistants that the service
requires. The Hospital of San Lazaro, founded in 1578
by the Franciscan order, is for the care of leprous
patients. The Manila Monte de Piedad and Savings
Bank, organised in 1880, is designed, first, to receive
pledges of furniture, jewellery, and household articles,
against which it lends money at the rate of six per
cent, per annum, and, secondly, to receive savings
deposits, on which it pays four per cent, per annum.
It has several branches. There are three banks in
Manila, the Banco EspaEol Filipino, the Chartered
Bank of India, Australia, and China, and the Hong-
kong and Shanghai Bank, the last of which has also a
branch in Iloilo. There are numerous social societies,
among which are the Spanish Casino, the Musical
Society of the Philippines and of Saint Cecilina, the
Manila and Nagatayan Club with a branch in San
Gabriel, the German Union Casino, the Mariquina Gun
ILOILO 3 1 1
Club, the Gun Club of San Juan del Monte, the Manila
Jockey Club, the Manila Lawn Tennis Club, and the
Cycle Club of Manila. The city is at present under
military Government.
ILOILO
This port, which is the chief town of the populous
province of the same name in the island of Panay, is
situated in lat. 10 deg. 48 min. W., near the south-
eastern extremity of the island, close to the sea, on the
border of the narrow channel formed by the opposite
island of Guimaras. The town is built principally on
low marshy ground, partly fronting the sea and partly
along the left bank of a creek, or inlet, which runs
towards Jaro, and after describing a semicircle again
meets the sea near Iloilo. Although the principal
seaport and seat of the government of the province,
Iloilo is much smaller than many towns in its vicinity.
The harbour is well protected, and the anchorage good,
the island of Guimaras forming a sheltered passage.
The depth of water on the bar at the entrance to the
creek or river Iloilo is about five fathoms at low water,
but at a short distance within it decreases to fifteen
feet and then deepens again. At spring tides the whole
town is covered with water, but notwithstanding this, it
is a very healthy place. The high ground of Guimaras
forms a kind of funnel with the Panay shore, and the
result is that a calm is of rare occurrence, there being
almost always a breeze of some kind. The N.E. breeze
blows very strongly. It is much cooler in Iloilo than
in Manila. The better class of houses in Iloilo are
built on strong wooden posts, two or three feet in
diameter, that reach to the roof, stone walls to the first
floor, with wooden windows above and an iron roof.
The poorer class of dwellings are flimsy structures of
nipa, built on four stout posts. The means of com-
munication with the interior are still very inadequate,
and retard the development of the port,
312 THE PHILIPPINES
The principal manufacture in Iloilo for local con-
sumption and export to Manila is that of pina, a cloth
very finely made from the fibre of the pineapple leaf.
Another cloth called jusi is woven from siJi, and is
made in white and colours. The country round Iloilo
is very fertile and is extensively cultivated. The
annual crop of sugar is estimated at about a million
piculs. Tobacco is also largely cultivated. Eice is
grown on a considerable scale, but locusts are very
plentiful in the island, and often do great damage to
the cane and paddy. Typhoons frequently work
great havoc. Earthquakes, however, seldom occur.
Iloilo is about 250 miles distant from Manila. The
principal traders are Chinese mestizos, who are very
numerous in the port.
The island of Negros is extremely fertile and con-
tributes three-fourths of the sugar shipped from Iloilo,
the quality of which is excellent.
On the 23rd December, 1898, the Spanish Governor-
General resident in Iloilo resigned, giving over the care
of the town to the Mayor or Alcalde of Iloilo, preparing
with his troops and Government ofi&cials, naval, military,
and civil, to evacuate the place, which on the 25th
December was accomplished.
On the 26th December, 1898, the town of Iloilo,
which for over a month had been entirely surrounded
on the land side by Eevolutionary forces, was delivered
over to them by the Spanish Alcalde, and the Philippine
Eepublic flag was hoisted on all the public buildings.
On the 28th December, 1898, the United States forces,
composed of the U.S.S. BcUtimorc and three transports
with 3800 troops, under the command of Brigadier-
General Miller, arrived in front of Iloilo, but did not
land, as the Revolutionary forces declined to give up the
town unless under orders from Aguinaldo, their chief.
Affairs in Luzon having come to an open rupture
between the United States and the Revolutionary forces,
the General commanding the United States expedition
advised the foreign Consulates that hostilities would
[/'»;/<3 n\2.
CEBU 313
commence after 5 a.m. on the 12th February, and on
the morning of the 11th February, about 8.45 a.m., the
first shot was fired. The Eevolutionary forces set fire
to the city, leaving it almost in ruins, and retired
outside the city limits. Iloilo was immediately occupied
by the Americans.
Business during 1899 has been curtailed to about
one-third of its usual volume, due to the rigorous
blockage of all ports now in Insurgent hands, and the
outlook for 1900 looks far from promising.
CEBU
This is the capital of the island of Cebu, and ranks
next to Iloilo among the ports of the Philippines. It
was at one time the seat of the administration of
revenue for the whole of the Bisayas, but this was
removed to Manila in 1849. Cebu is a well-built town
and possesses fine roads, but the people are devoid of
commercial enterprise. The trade of Cebu consists
principally of hemp and sugar. The neighbouring
islands of Leyte, Mindanao, and Camiguin possess
extensive hemp plantations, a large proportion of the
produce of which finds its way to Cebu for shipment.
There are some very valuable and extensive coal deposits
in the island of Cebu, but the mines have not as yet
been worked with any enterprise.
BORNEO
BOENEO
After Australia this island is the largest in the world.
It extends from about 7 deg. N. to 4 deg. S. latitude,
and from 109 deg. to 118 deg. E. longitude. Its length is
about 750 miles, its greatest breadth 600 miles, and its
average breadth is estimated at 350 miles. Its vast
interior consists of almost impenetrable forests, which
teem with animal life, but are sparsely populated by
man. The soil is fertile, and in some parts near the
coast the land is marshy. It was discovered by the
Portuguese in 1526, and they as well as the Spaniards,
Dutch, and English formed settlements on different
parts of the coast, but none of these were long main-
tained. The Dutch claim sovereignty over the greater
part of the south and west of the island, along the coast
of which they maintain establishments ; the territories
of the British North Borneo Company, the Sultan of
Brunei, and the Eajah of Sarawak extend over and
along the north and north-eastern coast. The native
states are insignificant and in a backward condition.
The total population of Borneo is roughly estimated at
3,000,000. The productions are many and varied, and
the mineral resources believed to be great. The Chinese,
who have been settled in most Bornean towns for genera-
tions, conduct all the trading operations. The country
generally is in an undeveloped condition. The natives
are of the Malayan type, and are, as a rule, indolent and
wanting in enterprise. A British Protectorate exists
over Brunei, Sarawak, and the territory of the British
North Borneo Company.
3 I 8 BORNEO
SAKAWAK.
The territory of Sarawak comprises an area of about
40,000 square miles, with a population of about 500,000,
composed of various races. It is situated on the north-
west coast of the island of Borneo, is intersected by
many rivers navigable for a considerable distance inland,
and commands about 400 miles of coast line. The
sovereignty of the district from Tanjong Datu to the
entrance of the Samaharan river was obtained from
the Sultan of Brunei in the year 1842 by Sir James
Brooke, who became well known as Eajah Brooke of
Sarawak. In 1861 a second cession was obtained, from
the Sultan of Brunei, of all the rivers and land from
the Samarahan river to Kadurong Point; in 1882 a
third cession was obtained of one hundred miles of
coast line and aU the country and rivers that lie
between Kadurong Point and the Baram river, in-
cluding about three miles of coast on the north-east
side of the latter ; and iu 1885 another cession was
obtained of the Trusan river, situated on the north of
the mouth of the Brunei river. In 1888 a British
Protectorate was established, and in 1890 the Eajah
took possession of Limbang, which was approved of
by H.M. Government in August, 1891. The present
Eajah, H.H. Sir Charles Johnson Brooke, g.c.m.g., is a
nephew of Sir James Brooke, and was born 3rd June,
1829, succeeded 1868, married 1869 to Margaret de
Windt. His heir— the Eajah Mudah — Charles Vyner
Brooke, was born 26th September, 1874.
The country produces diamonds, gold, silver, anti-
mony, quicksilver, coal, gutta-percha, india-rubber,
canes, rattans, camphor, beeswax, birds' nests, sago,
pepper, and gambler. The principal towns are : Kuch-
ing, the capital of Sarawak, situated on the Sarawak
river, about 23 miles from its mouth, in latitude 1 deg.
32 min. N., longitude 110 deg. 38 min. E. (approximate).
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 319
Claude Town, the principal town and fort on the
Baram river, is about 60 miles inland. Bintulu, situate
at the mouth of the Bintulu river, is famous for its
sago. Muka, a few miles up the river of that name, is
also noted for its sago and bilian timber, Oya, which
lies about \\ miles up the Oya river, and Matu, about
5 miles up the Matu river, are both noted for their
sago. Sibu is situated about 60 miles, Kanowit about
100 miles, -and Kapit about 160 miles up the Eejang
river. Eejang village, at the mouth of Eejang river,
is noted for its Bilian (iron-wood) works. Kabong is
situated at the mouth of the Kalaka river. Saribas
lies about 80 miles up the river of the same name,
which has a tidal wave or bore. Simang-gang is about
60 miles up the Batang Lupar river, which also has
a bore. Simunjan is situated about 18 miles up the
Sadong river, where the Government work a coal mine.
Trusan is about 18 miles up the Trusan river, and
Limbang about 10 miles up the Limbang river, the
latter river being noted for its sago. There is a military
force which is armed, equipped and drilled after the
English model, the interior economy in barracks of
the English Army being closely followed. The fort at
Kuching is well armed with modern Armstrong B.L.
guns, and provision is made for submarine mines.
The force is recruited from Sepoys, Malays, and Dyaks.
Harbour, buoy, and light dues : — Three cents per ton,
payable on arrival, and chargeable to all vessels of
5 tons and upwards.
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO
This territory, formerly known as Sabah, situated at
the northern end of the island of Borneo, has a coast
line of about 500 miles. The population is supposed to
number about 120,000, which includes about 10,000
Chinese. The chief geographical feature in the territory
is the mountain of Kina Balu, about 13,698 feet high.
320 BORNEO
The principal river on the West coast is the Padas ; on
the East there are the Kinabatangan, Labuk, Sibuku,
Sugut, Segama, and many others. The best harbours
are those of Gaya on the West coast, Kudat on the
North, and Sandakan on the East.
The climate is particularly pleasant for the tropics ;
the days are rarely very hot, while a blanket is often
required at night; and very little inconvenience is
experienced from insect pests, such as mosquitoes and
the like. Hurricanes, earthquakes, and other natural
disturbances are unknown. The seas are teeming with
fish, and the prospects of an export trade in dried and
salted fish are encouraging. Trade with Hongkong,
especially in timber, is well established, and steamers
for Hongkong and Singapore, whence the majority of
the trade supplies are obtained, are frequent. Amongst
the zoological productions of North Borneo are to be
noted elephants, rhinoceros, deer of three kinds, wild
cattle, pigs, bears, etc. There are pythons of 20 feet
and upwards in length ; but other snakes, particularly
poisonous varieties, are very rare. Of game birds there
are a few — argus, fire back, and Bulwer pheasants, three
sorts of partridges, many pigeons and doves, snipe, and
quail.
Sandakan has a magnificent harbour and is the chief
place of trade. The imports include cloth, rice, hard-
ware, manufactured goods of all kinds, opium, Chinese
tobacco, Chinese coarse crockery, matches, biscuits,
oil, sugar, etc. The chief exports are tobacco, timber,
cutch and rattans, gutta-percha, india-rubber, birds'
nests, seed pearls, trepang, sharks' fins, camphor, cutch,
tortoiseshell, dried cuttle-fish, beeswax, and other natural
products, which are brought in from the interior, the
neighbouring Sulu Archipelago, etc. The imports for
the whole colony for 1898 amounted to $2,419,097, as
compared with $1,887,498 in 1897 and $1,882,189 in
1896; and the exports to $2,881,851, as compared
with $2,942,293 in 1897 and $2,420,234 in 1896. The
revenue in 1898 (exclusive of $2214, land sales) was
BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 32 I
$503,307, and in 1897 $436,063, and the ordinary-
expenditure was $387,261 and in 1897 $341,125, extra-
ordinary expenditure on capital account in 1898 being
£324,533. Tobacco-planting promises to become a
great and profitable industry, and the tobacco already
raised obtains a ready sale at very high prices. Coffee-
planting is being taken up, and gambier, cotton, Manila
hemp, and sugar are receiving attention from Europeans,
as well as from natives and Chinese. Cutch is ex-
tracted from mangrove barli and is being exported in
increasing quantities. The population of the town of
Sandakan, the capital of the territory, was 7132 in
1891, of whom 131 were Europeans and 3627 Chinese.
On the west coast a short line of railway is being con-
structed, running inland from Brunei Bay to open up
the interior of the country, and it is intended ultimately
to carry it across the island to St. Lucia Bay. Sandakan
became connected telegraphically with Labuan on the
7th May, 1897, and was thus placed in communication
with Europe, etc.
The territory of British North Borneo was acquired
from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu by cession for a
small annual payment in 1879-80, and the British
North Borneo Company was incorporated by Eoyal
Charter on the 1st November, 1881. The area of the
territory is 31,106 square miles, and the population is
estimated at about 150,000, of whom about 200 are
European. In May, 1888, a British Protectorate was
established. The following of&cers have administered
the Government of the Territory since its acquisition
by the Company :— 1881-1887, W. H. Treacher; 1887-
1888, W. M. Crocker (acting); 1888-1891, C. V.
Creagh, c.m.g. ; 1891-1892, L. P. Beaufort (acting) ;
1892, C. V. Creagh, c.m.g. ; 1895, L. P. Beaufort ; 1900,
Mr. Hugh Clifford.
32 2 BORNEO
LABUAN
This, the smallest British Colony in Asia, was ceded
to Great Britain by the Sultan of Brunei in 1846, and
taken possession of in 1848. It is situated on the
north-west coast of Borneo in latitude 5 deg. 16 min. N.,
and longitude 115 deg. 15 min. E. It has an area of
30^ square miles, and is about six miles from the
Borneo coast. Although Labuan possesses a fine port,
has extensive coal deposits, and by situation seemed
likely to become a depot for the trade of the north coast
of Borneo, it has only partially fulfilled the expecta-
tions formed of it. The produce of Brunei finds a
market in Labuan, but the volume of the trade is small.
There are three sago manufactories on the island, where
the raw material is converted into flour, for export
chiefly to Singapore. The Government is now ad-
ministered by the British North Borneo Company,
having been handed over to it by the Imperial Govern-
ment in 1889. The population in 1890 was 5853, of
whom 25 were Europeans and 17 Eurasians, the re-
mainder being chiefly Chinese and Malays. The
Chinese, who number over a thousand, are the chief
traders, and most of the industries of the island are in
their hands. There are over thirty Europeans now,
including Government Officials, the staff of the Eastern
Extension Telegraph Company, the Coal Point mines
and traders. The New Central Borneo Company are
lessees of the Coal Mines in the isltmd, and are de-
veloping a considerable trade in the coal, which is
largely supplied to H.M.'s ships. The revenue is
chiefly derived from the farming out of licences to sell
tobacco, spirits, opium, and fish.
INDEX
The main rtfei'ence to any pa^-ticular place is shown by the number of page
being in darker type.
PAGE
Aberdeen 198
Abra 305
Aoheen 289
Agbas 305
Ajikawa river . . .30
Alas 296
Albay 305, 306
Alhabat 305
Amboina 288
AUERIOA :
Philippine Islands . . 30
Amot 92, 162
Anambas islands . . 279
Angkor ... . . 236
Anhwei 63, 131
Annam . . . 164,221,228
ANPDfQ .... 36, 39
Asakusa temple .... 22
Assahan 297
Ayuthia 242
Babuyanes 305
Bagan Api Api .... 298
Balabao 305
Balanguingi 305
Bali 283
Bamboo Town .... 160
Banda 288
Bangkok . . . . 243
Bangkolem 244
Banka 284, 289
Bantam 281
Bantayan .... 305
Banton 305
Baram river
Baros .
Bataaa
Batak.
Batanes .
Batanga's
Batang Lnpar r
Batang Padang
Batavia . .
Batjan
Battambang .
Batu Gajah .
Batu Pabat .
Belawan Deli
Belcher Bay .
Belcher Point
Bencoolen
Bengkalis
Benguet .
Bentang river
Bernam river
Bernang .
Betel Nut Island
Bhamo
Bienhoa .
Billiton . .
Binondo .
Bintang . .
Bintula .
Bisilan .
Bluff Hills .
Bohol . . .
Bonthain Peak
Bontoo
BOBNEO . .
PAGE
. 318
. 288
. 305
. 296
. 305
. 306
319
. 273
. 290
. 284
. 236
. 275
. 266
. 298
. 198
. 207
. 289
. 298
305
. 268
275
. 270
. 262
117, 174
. 231
284, 289
. 307
. 279
. 319
. 305
. 25
. 305
. 295
. 305
279, 317
324
INDEX
BoMrrington , . . ,
British Nortb Bobneo
Broughton Bay .
Brunei Bay .
Buentua . .
BnlTENZORG .
Bukit Berapit .
Bukit BerembuD
Bukit Ghandon .
Bukit Meratjam
Bulaoan ,
Burgevine, American
Burias ....
Gaburao .
Cagayan .
Calamianes
Camalig .
Gamaiines
Caubodia
Gamiguin
Oamote .
Canton .
Gape Evelyn
Capiz .
Garimons Islands
Gasiguran
Gatanduanes .
Cavite . .
Cebu .
Celebes
Chandoo .
Changchau .
Ghang-chow-fu
Changsha
Changteh. .
Ghao-To . .
Gharil
Ohefoo . .
Ghekiang.
Ghemor .
Ohemdlfo
Ohenglin .
Cheng Wang
Oheribon .
Cheung Ghau
Ghien-tang river
Ghihli . .
Chikhom . .
Kow
PAGE
193
319
49
321
305
292
275
270
274
276
305
97
805
. 305
:J05, 806
. 805
. 306
. 305
221, 236
305, 313
. 805
63, 156
. 177
. 87
. 805
266, 284
. 305
. 305
. 309
. 313
279
232
63
153
137
137
164
216
84
63
275
46,48
1S8
80
288
20.'i
, 143
63, 70
166
Dagupan . .
Dauis .
Davao Bislig.
Deep Bay
Deep-water Bay
Defence Greek
DeU . . .
Deshima .
Dindings, The
Djogjokarta .
Donnai river .
Dragon river
Duiagat Asgfio
East cliff . .
Eastern Siberia
East India Co.
East Point .
Emma Haven
China
Government and Bevenne,
60 ; Population, 62 ;
Army and Navy, 64;
Trade 65.
Chin -chew . .
Chinese Kowloon
Ching Chow . .
Chingtao .
Chingtu .
Ohinkianq .
Chinnampo .
Chin Shih Huang
Cholon . .
Christmas Island
Chuenpee
Chu-kiang river
ChuUa . .
Chung-chong
Chungking .
Chusan Island
Claude Town
Cochin China
CoBos Islands
Colowan .
Conception .
COBEA . .
Cua Cam river
215
. lei
. 164
. 87
63
29, 117, 128
. 52
. 164
235
. 249
. 180
. 156
43,52
43
141
. 145
. 319
221, 231
. 249
217
305
43
. 226
. 309
305
. 305
. 161
190
92
. 297
33
249
. . . 294
. . . 232
. . l.">2
. 305
. . 81
. . 3
145, 149, 156
. . 198
. . . 295
Federated Malay States
Feng-tai . , .
267
76
INDEX
325
PAGB
Fly Point ... 207
Foki 38
Fohkien 63
FoocHOW .... 63, 92, 149
Fooniang 161
Formosa 11, 35
Fbance :
Kwaiigchauwan,166; Ton-
kin, 221; Hanoi, 225;
Haiphong, 226; Annam,
228 ; Hue, 228 ; Tou-
rane, 229 ; Quinhon,
231 ; Cochin-Cliina,231 ;
Saigon, 231 ; Cholon,
235 ; Cambodia, 236.
Fuego . . .
Fuh-ohaw-fu
Fuho Bapids.
Fuji-san peak .
Fukagawa
Fuk Tsun Heung
FUNING-PU .
FtJSAN . . .
305
149
165
25
21,23
203
148
46,51
Gajoo 296
Gap Rook 191
Gaya 320
Generallsland .... 305
Genghoi 242
Gensan 49
George Town .... 262
Gebmaki
Kiaochau 87
Giadinh 231
Great Britain :
Wei-hai-wei, 86 ; Kowloon,
160; Hongkong, 178;
Singapore, 250 ; Ma-
lacca, 259 ; Penan g,
261; Federated Malay
States, 267 ; Pahang,
267; Negri Sembilan,
269 ; Selangor, 270 ;
Perak, 273 ; British
North Borneo, 319 ;
Labuan, 322.
Great Cloud Mountain . . 164
Green Island .... 205
Guimaras 311
Guinobatan 306
Hai-duong 226
Hai Kwan Tze Arsenal . 75
Haimun Island .... 152
Hainan Island .
Haining . . . .
Haiphong . . .
Haiso Sha Ferry
Hakodate . .
Hakone Mountains
Ham-Kiung .
Hangchow .
Hankow ,
. 168
. 143
222, 226
. 94
11,28
. 24
. 43
63, 143
76, 92, 134
Hanoi 224, 225
Han river . . 43, 46, 134, 154
Hanyang . . .44, 46, 135
Hatien 232
Heang-shan Island . . . 216
Hinlap 243
Hiroshima 11
HoiHOW . .... 168
HoKOW 162, 172
Hokkaido-cho .... 11
Holland:
Batavia, 290 ; Buitenzorg,
292; Soerabaia, 293;
Semarang, 294 ; Pa-
dang, 294 ; Macaseer,
295 ; Sumatra East
Coast, 295.
Honan 63
Hon-Do Island .... 226
Hongay 222, 224
Hongkew . . .93, 110, 116
Hongkong 177
History and Government,
178 ; Finance, 189 ; In-
stitutions, 196; Indus-
tries, 198 ; Population,
Defences, etc., 206 ;
Climate, 207; Trade,
210.
Honjo 21, 23
Honsbiu 15, 25
Hsiao Sha Ferry ... 94
Hfibei 38
Hufe 228
Hunan . 63
Hungham 207
Hupeh 6.3,134
Hwae river 74
Hwang-po river .... 89
Y 3
326
INDEX
Hwasang
Htoqo
PAGE
131
30
lOHANO 140
Idzumi.nada river ... 31
Ikushunbetsu . . .29
Iloido 305,311
Inchiun 48
Indo-Gbina .... 221
Indragiri 295
Infanta 305
Inland Sea 31
Ipoh 275
Iseza Kicho 26
Jakatra 281
Japan 9
Government, 9 ; Revenue,
11 ; Army and Navy,
13; Population, Trade
and Industry, 15.
Jaro 311
Jelebu 269
Jelei 268
Jempol 269
Jekchuan .... 45, 48
Jeram Batang .... 268
Jinsen 48
Johol 269
JOHOBE ... 265
Johore river 265
Junck Salong .... 241
Kabang 268
Kabong 319
Kadurong Point . . 318
Kaifung 63
Kajeli 288
Eakupang 94
Ealaka river 319
Kalian Mas 268
Eamunting 275
Kanagawa 25
Kang-wea ... 43
Kanowit 319
Eansuh 63
Kao Ohang-Miao . . 99, 117
Eao-ping river .... 170
Kapit 819
Karimon Islands . 279
Kashgar 117
Kawas ....
PAQB
. 174
Eebao ....
222,224
Keeling Islands . .
. 249
Kellet's Island . .
. 205
Kelumg ....
36, 37, 38
Kema
. 288
Keng Tung .
. 173
Elennedytown . .
198
Ke-sho ....
. 224
Keweiang .
. 133
Kiang Ning Pu . .
. 129
Kiang Peh-ting
. 142
Eiangsi . . .
. 63
Kiangsu .... 6
3, 28, 126
KlAOOHAn . . .
87
Kilian Mas .
. 293
Kimpai Pass . .
. 151
Kinabatangan river
. 320
Kinchow . . .
. 76
King-hsien . . .
. 131
Kin Ling . . .
. 129
Kinmun Island .
. 153
Kinta river .
. 273
Kin-t6-chSn . . .
. 133
KiTIEIANG . . .
. 133
Kiukong ....
39
Kiung-kei . . .
43,46
Kinng-sang . . .
43,51
Kinsbiu ....
15,35
Kiang ....
. 271
Kobe
30
Koepang ....
. 288
Koh-si-chang Island
. 245
Kongkun . . .
. 162
Korat ....
. 243
Kowloon ....
. 160
Kowlonn Bay . .
. 180
Kuangbsin ,
. 164
Kublai Khan . .
. 148
Kuching ....
. 319
Kudat ....
. 320
Kulangsu Island .
. 153
Kuliang ....
. 150
Knmamoto . . .
34
KungPak . . .
. 161
Kunlung Ferry
. 174
KUNSAN ....
63,54
Kwala Kangaa
. 274
Kwala Kubu
. 272
Kwala Langat .
. 271
Kwala Lumpur .
. 271
INDEX
327
PAGE
Kwala Pilah. . . .269
Kwala Selangor. . . . 271
Kwangohau Bay . . 166
KWANGOHAUWAN . 166
Kwangsi 63
Kwangtung . . . 63
Kweichau 63
Kweiyang 63
Kwelin 63
Kyoto 9, 10
Labuan 322
Labuk river 320
Laguna 305
Lai Mountains .... 241
Lalak 274
Lamma 205
Lampacao Island . . 215
Lampongs .... 289
Lanchow . . . 63
Langkat 297
Langeon 224
Lantao ... . . 205
Laokay 117,171
Laos 221
Lappa 161
Larnt 274
Lepanto 305
Leyte 305,313
Liang-kia-yuan .... 79
Lianpo 215
Liao river 82
Liao-tung,Gulfof ... 82
Peninsula . . 83
Liau Tung, Gulf of . . 76
Lienchau 167
Ligao 306
Lilian 216
Limbang 219
Ling'gi river 269
Iiintin 161
Lipis 268
Liukungtao Island ... 86
I/xx;hoo Islands ... 10
Losing Island .... 151
Lotus Hills 81
Lubok China .... 270
Luciara 303
Luet 268
Lu Han Railway . . .135
LuiKong 39
PACK
LtiNGCHOW .... 170, 224
Lupac 305
Luzon Island .... 301
Ly-ee-mun Pass 191, 201, 202, 207
Macao . . ... 215
Macasbeb 295
Madoera 284
Maestro de Campo . . 305
Malabon 309
Malacca 259
Malay States ... 196
Malow-chow 161
Mambulao 305
Mamoi Arsenal .... 151
Manchuria ...... 63
Manohurian Railway . 83
Man-hao ... . . 171
Manila 307
Mapu 48
Marble Mountains . . . 231
Marianas 305
Marinduque 305
Masbate 305
Ma Wan 205
Medau 296
Megasaki 34
Mekong river .... 232
Menado 288
Menam Valley .... 241
Mencayan ... . 305
Meng Lein 174
MfiNQTSZ 171
Milanao 306
Minato river .... 31
Mindanao .... 306, 313
island ... 301
Mindoro 305
Min-ngan Pass . . . 150
Miu river 149
MirsBay 161
Misamis 305
Miyagi 11
Mogi 33
Moji 34
MoKPo 62
Mongolia 63
Morong 305
Mororan . . ... 29
Moung Hou 173
Mount Elgin ... 203
328
INDEX
Mount Ophir
Salak
Seeama
Sylna
Unzen
PACK
268
290
268
36
34
95
319
Muddy Flat, Battle of .
Muka
Myk-W 230
Mytho 231
Nagasaki .... 1 1, 33
Nagoya II
Namdinh 226
Kamoa Island .... 154
Kamtao 92
Nanchang 63
Nanhsi river .... 172
Nanking . . 63, 92, 117, 129
Nan-ling 131
Nanning 168
Nantai 150
Natoeaa Islands . . . 279
Negri Sehbilan ... 269
Negros Island . 301, 305, 312
Netheblands India . . 279
Area, Population, 279 ;
History and GoTem-
ment, 280 ; Climate,
282 ; Products, 283 :
Bevenne, 285; Trade,
288.
Newchwang . . 76, 80, 82
New Eclja
New Guipuzgou
New Viscaya
NganMn . .
NiCOLAJEWSK
Ning-kuoh-fu
NiNGPO . . .
Joss house
Noire river . •
North Camarines
North Ham-kiung
North llocos .
North point .
Oedjoeng
Okawa nver
Okinawa . . .
One Tree island
Osaka . . .
305
305
305
63
5
131
92, 146
92,98
223
305
54
305
207
293
21
10
205
10, 11, 29
I PASS
Otaru 29
Ow-kiang river .... 147
I Oya 319
I Oyarzal 305
I Padano 29ft
Padas river 320
Pahang 267
Pakhoi 167
Pampanga 305
Pauaroekan 293
Panay Island .... 301
Pangaainan 305
Pangkalan Brandan . . 298
Pangkor Island .... 275
Fantai 270
Panti 266
Pao-ting-fu 76
Pappenberg .... 33
Paracale 305
Paraquay 305
Pasig river 307
Patani 268
Pearl river 156
PechUi, Gulf of . . 77, 79, 86
Pe Chi river 152
Pei-ho river . . . . 71,78
Pei-Tai-Ho 79
Pekan 267
Peking 63, 71
Pelambang 289
Penang 261
Pengerang 266
Pengkalan Eompas . . 270
Pebak 273
Petit Lao 225
Peton 38
Pettab HUl 81
Philiffines 301
Phu-Lang-Thnong . ... 224
Ping-an 43
PingChau 205
Pingohiao 109
PiNG-TANO 63
Plus river 273
Pnom-penh 237
Pokfolum 201
Polangui 306
Polillo 305
Pootung . . . .94,112
Port Abthtr ... 82, 8S
INDEX
329
PAGE
Port Dickson . . . 264, 270
Port May 3
Port Weld 275
Portugal :
Macao 215
Possession Point . . . 177
Prai 276
PrayaWall 184
Prince of Wales island . 261
Principe . .... 305
Pbovinoes de L'Annam . 229
Province Wellesley . 249, 261
Prye river 262
Pulan Kobob .... 266
Pulo Condor islands . 231
Punjom 268
Pusan . .... 51
Quang-nam 230
Quang-ngai . ... 230
Quemoy island .... 153
QUINHON 231
Eaub 268
Bed river .... 172, 225
Bejang river . . 319
Bembau 269
Biouw .... 279, 288
Bocky Point 81
Bomblon 305
Bose island 48
BusaiA :
Vladivostock, 3; Nioola-
jewsk, 5 ; Port Arthur,
83 ; Talienwan, 83.
Sabah
: river.
Saigon . .
Sainam .
St. John's Island
St. Lucia Bay
Saiwan
SaMe river .
Samaharan .
Samar
Samsah Basin
Samshui . .
Sam Shui Po
Samun
San-choan
. 319
. 319
232, 234
. 162
. 215
. 321
. 202
. 48
. 318
. 305
. 148
. 162
. 203
. 161
. 215
PAGE
Sandakan 320
San-Ho-Pa . ... 154
San Miguel 307
Santalan 309
Santd 148
Sapan 305
Sapporo 29
Sarawak ... . 318
Saribas 319
Segama river 320
Selangoh 270
Selepin 268
Seluang . . . . 266
Semantan .... 268
Semarang 294
Seoul 43,46
Serdang 297
Seremban 269
Settsu 29
Setul 270
Shamchuu 204
Shameen 158
Shakqhai 88
History, 92 ; Government,
99 ; Finances, 103 ;
Population, 105; Cli-
mate, 107; Industries,
116 ; Trade, 121.
Shanbaikwan .... 76
Shankiwan 198
Shansi .... 63
Shantung 63
Shasi ... ... 139
Shayuchung ... . 161
Shek. 202
Shensi 63
Sheung Tsun .... 204
Shiba 23
Shikoku 15
Shing-king 82
Shui Hing Gorge ... 163
Siak 297
SiAM 241
Siang river 137
Siang-tan 137
Siberia, Eastern . . 3
Siboga 288
Sibu 306,319
Sibuku river 320
Sibuyan 305
Sicawei . ... 93, 96
33°
Sigan . . .
Si-kiang river
Biluauga .
Simang-gang
SinipaDg , .
SimuDJan
SlNGAPOHE .
Singkel .
Siquijor .
BOERABAIA .
So-Kimpo
Song Chin . .
Songkoi river
Song-ma river . .
SOOCHOW ....
creek .
Sorsogon ....
Southern Ilocos . .
South Ham-EiuDg .
Sri Menanti .
Stanley ....
Stonecutter's island.
Straits Settlements
Sugut river
Sulphur Channel
Sulu . . .
Sumatra, East
Sumida river
Sunday island
Sung-obi river
Sungei Besi .
Sungei Lemblng
Sungei Ujong
Suriago .
Suyne
SWATOW . .
Szechuen .
SZEMAO .
INDEX
Coast
Tablas .
TaiLu Lake .
Tai Kok Tsui
Tainan . .
Taipa . . .
Taipeh .
Taiping .
Taipobu .
Tai River
Taishan .
Taiwan . .
Talyuen . .
PAGE
63
162
. 305
. 319
. 293
. 319
260
. 288
. 305
282,293
. 199
. 54
. 225
. 223
97, 126
89, 109
. 305
306
49
269
201
. 205
. 249
. 320
207
305
OF 295
21,23
140
170
272
268
269
305
305
164
63
178
92.
305
126
199
37,39
217
37
273
204
81
161
36
68
Takow
Taku .
Talienwan
Bay
Talom
Tamao
Tambelan islands
Tambin .
Tampin . .
Tamsui .
Tandjong Balei .
Datu .
Pagar
Poera .
Prick .
Tanjong Bambntan
Tanjong Bboo .
Tarlac . . .
Tatung inlet.
Tayabaa .
Tekoham .
Teluk Anson.
Teluk Eertang .
Tengquil .
Temate .
Thaipeng
Thnanan .
Tientsin . . .
Timor. . . .
Tjiliwong
Tokyo . . .
Tong-Koo . .
Tongnai .
Tong Shan . .
Tonkin .
TOURAME .
Toutaboree .
Trans-Siberian Bail way
Triang river .
Tringganu .
Truong Tien river .
Trusan
Ts'angWu . . . .
Tsim-taa Tsui
Tsinan
Tsing I
Tsugaru Straits . . .
Tuli
Tumen river ....
Tungku
Tangting Lake . 136,
PAOE
36,89
77,78
. 83
. 82
. 268
. 215
. 279
. 269
. 269
37,88
. 298
. 318
. 254
. 298
. 291
. 276
. 254
. 305
. 52
. 305
. 37
. 275
. 274
. 305
'. 288
. 275
. 222
74,79
. 279
. 290
10,21
. 181
51
. 76
221,224
222,289
. 242
82,83
. 268
. 267
. 228
. 319
. 164
203, 207
. 63
. 205
. 28
. 306
49,54
. 79
142, 164
INDEX
331
PAGE
Tung-TsiGate .... 131
Tytam Tuk 202
Tz'ohu-lin 79
Ulu Langat . . . 271
Ulu Sapetang .... 275
Ulu Selangor . . . .271
Union 305
United States:
Philippines, 301; Ma-
nila, 307; Iloilo, 311;
Oebu, 313.
Uyeno ... . 23
Vaioo river
Victoria .
Victory Bay
Vinhlong
Visayas .
Vivero
Vladivostook
Waglan Island
Wanchai .
Wei-hai-wei
WSnohow
West river .
Whampoa
Whang-hai .
Whang-poo River
Wong Chune Chow
Wong-nai Ohung
WONSAN . . .
Woosung river .
Wuchang
232
191
83
232
305
305
3
. 190
193
12, 86
. 147
. 162
160
. 43
94
. 205
189, 201
. 49
89
63, 134
WUOHOW-FD
WUHU
PAGE
162, 211
. 181
Yang-king-pang
river . 94,
Yangtsze river .
Yangtsze Valley :
Shanghai, 88; Soochow,
126; Chin-Kiang, 128;
Nanking, 129; Wuhu,
131; Kewkiang, 138;
Hankow, 134 ; Noc-
how, 136; Shasi, 139;
lohang, 140 ; Chung-
king, 141 ; Hangchow,
143; Ningpo, 145.
Yau-ma Ti .
Yedo, Gulf of
Yentai .
Yezo .
Yinq-tz
92
109
YOCHOW .
Yokohama .
, Bay of
Y6-mak .
Yong-Dang river
Yueh ....
Yuen river .
YUBNSAN .
Yung river .
Yun Ho river
Yunnan . .
Zambales.
Zamboanga
203
25
84
10,29
82
136
25
2.5
216
53
1G4
137
49
145
74
63
305
303
THE END
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